Randomization, Statistics, and Causal Inference

“…with finite samples, the average treatment effect estimate ( d ATE ) remains an unbiased estimate of the true causal effect ( ATE true ) (Greenland 1990; Neyman 1990[1923]), but the price for the stochastic distribution of confounders is the introduction of noise ( ε ) (Mutz et al.…”

“By removing selection bias in the enrollment of participants, random sampling procedures provide robust statistical license for treatment group-specific inferences [14].”

“13 Especially considering that VKAs are associated with drug and food interactions, unpredictable dose-response, and a narrow therapeutic range, necessitating close monitoring of prothrombin time.”

“Suppose now that the first admission is massively compromised and is certain to die within 72 hours of admission, whereas the second is a mild case and is certain to survive, whether or not either of them receives lidocaine therapy (1990, p. 421).”

“（http://edmgr.ovid.com/epid/accounts/ifauth.htm, 2017 年 12 月 4 日アクセス） Jpn J Biomet Vol. 38, No. 2, 2017 ことに強く否定的であり，推定精度をしめす信頼区間の報告を勧めている．一方で，検定の使用 を完全に否定しているわけではなく，モデリングに関する意思決定（交互作用やトレンドの検定） やゲノム研究に関する検定は受け入れるとしている． 検定や P 値といった頻度論的手法は，ランダム化臨床試験やランダムサンプリングをともなっ…”

“Priors at zero for the bias parameters are inappropriate if the data are not randomly sampled or not randomly assigned to groups [18].”

“(5) In this vein, he suggested that non-experimental research needs to "elevate the importance of data description and summarization relative to statistical inference or else adopt inferential procedures based on more realistic probability models" in order to solve the problem of the statistical fallacy of the inferen…”

“Oletus intensiteetin tai todennakoisyyden homogeenisuudesta saman "riskiryhman" yksiloiden kesken on eparealistinen (Green land 1987), suorastaan absurdi (Greenland 1990).”

“…the beginning of this thesis, although randomization or random sampling are often not employed in observational studies, standard practice in quantifying uncertainty has relied heavily on methodology developed for situations involving some form of randomization or random sampling (Greenland, 1990).”