The DOI matches its Crossref record.
Do virtual computer models hinder anatomy learning?
Abstract
Log in or Register Subscribe to journalSubscribe Get new issue alertsGet alerts Enter your Email address: Wolters Kluwer Health may email you for journal alerts and information, but is committed to maintaining your privacy and will not share your personal information without your express consent. For more information, please refer to our Privacy Policy. Subscribe to eTOC Secondary Logo Journal Logo All Articles Images Videos Podcasts Blogs Advanced Search Toggle navigation Subscribe Register Login Articles & Issues Current IssuePrevious IssuesPublished Ahead-of-Print Collections Editorials of Laura Weiss Roberts, MD, MAAM Last PageCOVID-19 and Medical EducationAddressing Race and Racism in Medical EducationeBooksView All For Authors Submit a ManuscriptInformation for AuthorsLanguage Editing ServicesAuthor Permissions Journal Info About the JournalAbout the AAMCJournal MastheadSubmit a ManuscriptAdvertising InformationSubscription ServicesReprints and Back IssuesClassified AdsRights and PermissionsFor ReviewersFor MediaFor Trainees All Articles Images Videos Podcasts Blogs Advanced Search
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“An alternative, emerging from research on 3-D computer visualizations on medical training and visual object recognition is to allow learners only a limited degree of freedom in manipulating the model (Garg et al. 1999).”
From Interactivity in Video-based Models (2007) · cites this paper as Garg et al. 1999
Citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–182 of 182
Eva, K. W., Macdonald, R. D., Rodenburg, D., & Regehr, G. (2000) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1023/a:1009881605391 · Cited by 17
Unifying the Ability-as-Compensator and Ability-as-Enhancer Hypotheses
Kühl, T., Fehringer, B. C. O. F., & Münzer, S. (2022) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-021-09650-5 · Cited by 16
Khacharem, A., Zoudji, B., Kalyuga, S., & Ripoll, H. (2012) · Journal of Applied Sport Psychology · doi:10.1080/10413200.2012.735342 · Cited by 17
Münzer, S. (2015) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2014.12.007 · Cited by 16
Quantitative Research Methods in Medical Education
Norman, G. R., & Eva, K. W. (2018) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119373780.ch28 · Cited by 17
Self-citationThe skeletons in our closet: E‐learning tools and what happens when one side does not fit all
Nuland, S. E. V., & Rogers, K. A. (2017) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.1708 · Cited by 18
Loftus, J. J., Jacobsen, M., & Wilson, T. D. (2017) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.1080/0142159x.2017.1395401 · Cited by 15
“These results highlight the fact that some common and more contemporary tools used within modern teaching environments can hinder learning in a population of learners (Garg et al. 1999).”
ResultBraid, F., Williams, S. B., & Weller, R. (2012) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.1295 · Cited by 15
“Studies have shown that students learn better when given key 260 Braid et al. views of an anatomical structure rather than multiple views and that some learners with poor spatial ability may find multiple views difficult to learn from (Garg et al., 1999; Levinson et al., 2007).”
BackgroundLearning from Animations: From 2D to 3D?
Schwan, S., & Papenmeier, F. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-56204-9_2 · Cited by 15
Working memory and mental workload
Norman, G. R. (2013) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-013-9451-y · Cited by 16
“…an important determinant of learning spatial relationships like anatomy, explaining why several studies have shown a relationship between anatomical learning and spatial ability (a component of intelligence) (Garg et al. 1999) and between initial surgical skill and spatial WM (Hedman et al. 2007).”
BackgroundSelf-citationvan Walsum, A. V. C., & Henssen, D. J. H. A. (2021) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.2056 · Cited by 12
“This is not in line with the scientific literature on this topic in which males have been found to have increased spatial abilities in the field of anatomy education (Garg et al., 1999a, b; Lufler et al., 2012; Langlois et al., 2013; Vorstenbosch et al., 2013).”
BackgroundResultMcNamara, J. P., & Nolan, M. F. (2021) · Clinical Anatomy · doi:10.1002/ca.23829 · Cited by 12
“…& Kaude, 1993), CT and MRI images (Erkomen et al., 1990; Erkomen et al., 1992; McLachlan, 2004), virtual anatomy images (Codd & Choudhury, 2011; Garg et al., 1999; Nicholson et al., 2006; Shaffer, 2004) and most recently, ultrasound generated images (Brown et al., 2012; Dreher et al., 2014;…”
BackgroundMcKenzie, A. L., & Gutierrez, B. (2007) · Journal of Physical Therapy Education · doi:10.1097/00001416-200707000-00005 · Cited by 12
The effect of image quality, repeated study, and assessment method on anatomy learning
Fenesi, B., Mackinnon, C., Cheng, L., Kim, J. A., & Wainman, B. (2017) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.1657 · Cited by 12
“…can be rotated in virtual space have been shown to produce similar gains in learning anatomy as compared to 2D images that only depict key views (Garg et al., 1999, 2002; Khot et al., 2013); in fact, 3D images showing multiple views can actually impair learning for those with lower spatial…”
BackgroundInfluentialInteractive Holograms and Tutorials in Healthcare Education: Case Studies from the e-REAL Experience
Salvetti, F., & Bertagni, B. (2016) · International Journal of Advanced Corporate Learning (iJAC) · doi:10.3991/ijac.v9i2.5988 · Cited by 11
Boucheix, J. (2008) · Psychologie Française · doi:10.1016/j.psfr.2007.10.001 · Cited by 10
“Garg et al. (1999) ont mis en évidence un bénéfice d’images 3D dont la rotation était contrôlable dans l’apprentissage de l’anatomie en médecine.”
Physical and radiographic identification of the bones of the wrist by junior doctors
Roche, A. J., Williams, G., Wharton, D., et al. (2010) · Journal of Hand Surgery (European Volume) · doi:10.1177/1753193410380823 · Cited by 10
“Relying on easily accessible computer generated imagery may ultimately give the student an over-simplified view of human anatomy (Garg et al., 1999).”
BackgroundTrevisan, M. S., Oki, A. C., & Senger, P. L. (2009) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-009-9200-4 · Cited by 12
Yan, Z., Yu, X., Cheng, D., Ma, C., & Zhou, X. (2023) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2023.2175629 · Cited by 12
“Existing research suggests a link between intrinsic dynamic spatial skills and conceptual understanding in aspects of biology (Garg et al., 1999), chemistry (Stull et al., 2012), and physics (Kozhevnikov & Thornton, 2006).”
BackgroundSnapAnatomy, a Computer‐Based Interactive Tool for Independent Learning of Human Anatomy
Yip, G. W., & Kanagasuntheram, R. (2008) · Journal of Visual Communication in Medicine · doi:10.1080/17453050802241548 · Cited by 9
“9,12 Somewhat surprisingly, a recent study by Pereira et al showed that most anatomy students have a clear preference for written materials over computerized information.”
BackgroundLizana, P. A., Merino, C., Bassaber, A., et al. (2015) · International Journal of Morphology · doi:10.4067/s0717-95022015000400018 · Cited by 9
Editorial: Simulation- Saviour or Satan?
(2003) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1023/a:1022621901984 · Cited by 9
How Human Spatial Ability is Affected by the Misalignment of Idiotropic and Visual Axes
Salehi, F., Pariafsai, F., & Dixit, M. (2023) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-35017-7_12 · Cited by 8
Reinhold, M., Asal, C., Driesen, T., et al. (2024) · Brain and Spine · doi:10.1016/j.bas.2024.102826 · Cited by 8
“Although many educators have developed computer-generated models (Garg et al., 1999) (Garg et al., 2002) and interactive VR-anatomy models (Nicholson et al., 2006, 2008), there has been only little published in the literature about the impact on immediate learning, recall of practical skills and…”
Nicholson, D., Chalk, C., Funnell, W. R. J., et al. (2006) · eScholarship@McGill (McGill) · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2929.2006.02611 · Cited by 8
van Leeuwen, B. S., Dollé, A. E. D., Vernooij, J. C. M., et al. (2023) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci13100992 · Cited by 8
A Workload Comparison During Anatomical Training with a Physical or Virtual Model
Wismer, A. J., Reinerman-Jones, L., Teo, G. W. L., et al. (2018) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-91467-1_20 · Cited by 8
Objects drawn from haptic perception and vision‐based spatial abilities
Langlois, J., Hamstra, S. J., Dagenais, Y., Lemieux, R., Lecourtois, M., Yetisir, E., Bellemare, C. A., Bergeron, G., & Wells, G. A. (2023) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.2366 · Cited by 7
Properties of publications on anatomy in medical education literature
Vorstenbosch, M. A. T. M., Bolhuis, S. M., Kuppeveld, S. M. H. F. V., Kooloos, J. G. M., & Laan, R. (2011) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.210 · Cited by 7
Dennis, J. F., & Creamer, B. A. (2022) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci12080519 · Cited by 7
Gender Effects in Directed versus Incidental Learning in a 3D Virtual World Simulation
Kahal, S., Jestice, R. J., & Huang, R. (2017) · AIS Transactions on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.17705/1thci.00083 · Cited by 11
The evidence for virtual reality
Nicholson, D., Chalk, C., Funnell, W. R. J., et al. (2008) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2923.2007.02982.x · Cited by 7
“2–4 limit the user to viewing the anatomical structures in predefined orientations, and there is apparently no facility for zooming in and out of or panning across images.”
BackgroundEffect of teaching tools in spatial understanding in health science education: a systematic review
Sharmin, N., Chow, A. K., & King, S. (2023) · Canadian Medical Education Journal · doi:10.36834/cmej.74978 · Cited by 6
Armstrong, R., de Ribaupierre, S., & Eagleson, R. A. (2014) · Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine · doi:10.1016/j.cmpb.2014.01.006 · Cited by 6
What Does Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology Have to Say to Medical Education?
Norman, G. R. (2002) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1023/a:1014592301729 · Cited by 6
Self-citationEvaluating the effectiveness of orientation indicators with an awareness of individual differences
Ziemek, T. R., Creem-Regehr, S. H., Thompson, W. B., & Whitaker, R. (2012) · ACM Transactions on Applied Perception · doi:10.1145/2207216.2207218 · Cited by 6
“2008], whereas other research shows that sometimes 3D visualizations do not provide extra information that is used effectively, such as in anatomy learning tasks [Garg et al. 1999; Huk 2006].”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Role of Three-Dimensional Visualization in Surgical Planning of Treating Lung Cancer
Hu, Y. (2005) · doi:10.1109/iembs.2005.1616496 · Cited by 6
“Recently, Garg and colleagues [1-3] have conducted a series of studies to examine the role of 3-D displays in learning anatomy comparing with 2-D views.”
BackgroundKeehner, M., & Khooshabeh, P. (2005) · National Conference on Artificial Intelligence · Cited by 6
Simulation supported training in oral radiology : methods and impact on interpretative skill
Nilsson, T. A. (2007) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology) · Cited by 6
Uz-Bilgin, C., & Altun, A. (2014) · Journal of Cognitive Science · doi:10.17791/jcs.2014.15.1.27 · Cited by 5
Role of Image and Cognitive Load in Anatomical Multimedia
Wilson, T. D. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-43283-6_31 · Cited by 8
“Indeed, they “cautioned” educators to carefully consider the inherent characteristics of the models before deciding to use virtual reality-type images in a pedagogical approach [ 15 , 16 ].”
BackgroundLearning from graphically integrated 2D and 3D representations improves retention of neuroanatomy.
Naaz, F. (2012) · ThinkIR: The University of Louisville's Institutional Repository (University of Louisville) · doi:10.18297/etd/1034 · Cited by 5
Size matters! Investigating the effects of model size on anatomy learning
Yang, J. X., DeYoung, V., Xue, Y., et al. (2022) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.2233 · Cited by 4
Gender Effects in Directed versus Incidental Learning in a 3D Virtual World Simulation
Kahal, S., Jestice, R. J., & Huang, R. (2023) · AIS Transactions on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.17705/1thci.00183 · Cited by 4
Schneider, E., & Boucheix, J. (2008) · L’Année psychologique · doi:10.4074/s0003503308003023 · Cited by 3
Testing anatomy: Dissecting spatial and non‐spatial knowledge in multiple‐choice question assessment
Dickson, J., Shaw, D. J., Gardiner, A., et al. (2023) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.2323 · Cited by 3
Spatial abilities training in the field of technical skills in health care: A systematic review
Langlois, J., Bellemare, C. A., Toulouse, J., et al. (2020) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03280 · Cited by 3
Teaching Integration Applications Using Manipulatives
Bhatia, K., Premadasa, K., & Martin, P. (2014) · PRIMUS · doi:10.1080/10511970.2013.879971 · Cited by 3
“[4] shows that physical manipulatives have an edge over virtual manipulatives in enhancing spatial understanding.”
BackgroundLies, damned lies, and statistics
Norman, G. R. (2018) · Perspectives on Medical Education · doi:10.1007/s40037-018-0425-x · Cited by 3
“They did worse and they did a lot worse when the participants had poor spatial ability [1].”
BackgroundSelf-citationChatelain, L., Khalifé, M., de Loubresse, C. G., et al. (2025) · Orthopaedics & Traumatology Surgery & Research · doi:10.1016/j.otsr.2025.104310 · Cited by 2
Boucheix, J., Bonnetain, E., Avena, C., & Freysz, M. (2010) · Collection de l'Académie européenne de médecine de réadaptation · doi:10.1007/978-2-8178-0034-9_9 · Cited by 2
“et al. (23, 24 ) studied the way medical students learn spatial anatomy with 2-D and 3-D rotating objects.”
BackgroundCreating Virtual Models and 3D Movies Using DemoMaker for Anatomical Education
Miles, D. L., & Cui, D. (2023) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-36727-4_8 · Cited by 2
The Open Anatomy Explorer – a journey towards accessible open-source 3D learning environments
Vandenbossche, V., Kenhove, M. V., Smit, N. N., et al. (2024) · Journal of Visual Communication in Medicine · doi:10.1080/17453054.2024.2446764 · Cited by 1
“…of digital 3d models in anatomy education and their differential effects on learners with varying levels of spatial ability (Birbara & Pather, 2021; Garg et al., 1999; Khot et al., 2013; Vandenbossche et al., 2022a). to untan-gle the effects, more research on anatomy learning in 3d virtual…”
Hodgkiss, A., Gilligan-Lee, K. A., Thomas, M. L., et al. (2017) · Open Research (University of Surrey) · Cited by 1
Student perceived impact of a physical, kinetic and interactive model
Malone, E., Bingham, G. M., Seo, J. H., & Pine, M. D. (2019) · Journal of Visual Communication in Medicine · doi:10.1080/17453054.2019.1662281 · Cited by 1
The use of information and communication technologies for teaching anatomy
Nyemb, P. M. M. (2020) · MOJ Anatomy & Physiology · doi:10.15406/mojap.2020.07.00286 · Cited by 1
Referencias de orientación espacial en las App de anatomía 3D
D’Angelo, V. S. (2021) · Revista Española de Educación Médica · doi:10.6018/edumed.473331 · Cited by 1
Barger, J. B. (2016) · IUScholarWorks (Indiana University) · doi:10.7912/c25301 · Cited by 1
“Garg et al. (1999a, 1999b) showed that computer models were no worse than traditional images for student learning.”
Background(2000) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1023/a:1017333608235 · Cited by 1
Design of a User Interface to Investigate the Role of 3D Spatial Reasoning in Surgical Training
Ashrafi, L. (2012) · Scholarship@Western (Western University)
Mushaiqri, M. A. (2015) · UWA Profiles and Research Repository (University of Western Australia)
Loftus, J. J. (2014) · Libraries and Cultural Resources (University of Calgary) · doi:10.11575/prism/28026
Conciatori, T., Sandig, M., Santis‐Smith, A. D., et al. (2015) · The FASEB Journal · doi:10.1096/fasebj.29.1_supplement.875.11
Commentary on A Body of Work: Painting a Decade of Gross Dissection
Rodríguez, S., & Srivastava, S. (2018) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/01.acm.0000531163.02389.da
An Innovative 3 Dimensional Model of Middle Ear
Dixit, S. G., Dixit, A., Potaliya, P., et al. (2020) · Annals of the National Academy of Medical Sciences (India) · doi:10.1055/s-0040-1712618
“2 D represen ta t ions l ike 2D images , textbooks, chalk drawings, cause an increase in the cognitive overload on students (6).”
BackgroundThe role of spatial cognition in children's science learning
Hodgkiss, A. (2019) · UCL Discovery (University College London)
Lê, C. V., Nguyen, G. N., Nguyen, T. S., et al. (2020) · doi:10.1002/9781119654674.ch2
The Use of Tinkertoys® for Teaching Hip Anatomy and Alignment
Wendland, D. M. (2020) · Internet Journal of Allied Health Sciences and Practice · doi:10.46743/1540-580x/2020.1900
Loftus, J. J. (2019) · American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting (AERA) · doi:10.3102/1441398
(2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-822962-0.00025-0
3D visualization for anatomy education
Preim, B., Raidou, R. G., Smit, N. N., & Lawonn, K. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-822962-0.00015-8
Nolan, M. F., & McNamara, J. P. (2024) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.2429
Su, Y. (2024) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-61966-3_40
Lopetegi, E., & Azkue, J. J. (2025) · Biomedical visualization · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-91849-0_7
Ahsun, U. W., & Narod, F. B. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7389-9_15
“Evidence suggests that the effectiveness of multimedia learning designs varies according to the learner’s spatial aptitudes [41].”
BackgroundÖrs, A., & Atalar, H. (2026) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-026-08617-w
Pre-Radiology Dental Students' Ability to Recognize Anatomical Landmarks on Panoramic Radiography
Keskin, A., Aygün, T., Akbaytürk, N., et al. (2026) · Journal of Basic and Clinical Health Sciences · doi:10.30621/jbachs.1636334
Rotation mentale et motricité : approche développementale, genre et transfert
Hoyek, N. (2009) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/2ac05d05zb6c4z4c3bz966ez5110c948b3f0
Realism redefined: Is realism in virtual 3D visualizations overrated in anatomy learning?
Vandenbossche, V., Valcke, M., Maldoy, M., Uyttebroek, L., Willaert, W., & Audenaert, E. A. (2026) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.70244
Dickson, J., Macdonald, S., & Baillie, S. (2026) · Journal of Veterinary Medical Education · doi:10.3138/jvme-2025-0160
Strategies for Integrating Basic Sciences in Curriculum
Groves, H. M. (2005) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/3-540-28694-2_3
“Garg et al. (1999) specifically warned that, although digital resources could be valuable enhancements for learning anatomy, they should not be considered superior resources.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Garg, A., Norman, G. R., Spero, L., & Maheshwari, P.
- Affiliations
- McMaster University (CA)
- Venue
- Academic Medicine
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 1999-10
- Volume
- 74
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- S87-9
- ISSN
- 1040-2446 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2042108103
- Cited by
- 183
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 2.84
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Academic Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Anatomy and Medical Technology
- Social Sciences › Education › Innovations in Medical Education
- Social Sciences › Education › Simulation-Based Education in Healthcare
- Keywords
- anatomy education, medical education, virtual dissection
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Analysis of Variance, Anatomy, Computer-Assisted Instruction, Education, Medical, Undergraduate, Educational Measurement, Female, Humans, Male, Sex Factors, Space Perception, Task Performance and Analysis
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
