Interactivity in Video-based Models
Open accessAbstract
In this review we argue that interactivity can be effective in video-based models to engage learners in relevant cognitive processes. We do not treat modeling as an isolated instructional method but adopted the social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition in which learners start with observation and finish with independent, self-regulated performance. Moreover, we concur with the notion that interactivity should emphasize the cognitive processes that learners engage in when they interact with the learning environment. The four-component instructional design (4C/ID) model is used to define a set of cognitive processes: Elaboration and induction enable learners to construct schemas, whereas compilation and strengthening enable learners to automate these schemas. Pacing, cues, control over appearance, prediction, working in dyads, personalized task selection, and reflection prompts are identified as guidelines that might support learners to interactively construct schemas. Personalized task selection with part-task practice helps learners to interactively automate schemas.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This review argues that interactivity can be effectively embedded in video-based models to engage learners in the cognitive processes needed for skill acquisition, provided it is framed within the social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition rather than treated as an isolated technique. It proposes eight design guidelines, each mapped to the behavioral responses they elicit, the cognitive processes they mediate (elaboration, induction, compilation, strengthening), and the stage of skill acquisition in which they fit.
Key findings
- Seven guidelines are identified as supporting schema construction (elaboration and induction) across all four stages of the social cognitive model: pacing, cues, control over appearance, prediction, working in dyads, personalized task selection, and reflection prompts. One further guideline—personalized task selection with part-task practice—supports schema automation (compilation and strengthening).
- Cited evidence includes: Schwan and Riempp's (2004) nautical-knotting study, where pacing control was used more as knot difficulty increased, resulting in better understanding of underlying processes and less practice time; Shea et al. (2000), where dyads alternating performance and observation showed better transfer scores than practice-only or control conditions; and Kitsantas et al. (2000), where observers of peer models learned to identify and eliminate errors that observers of expert models missed.
- Van den Boom et al. (2004) found reflection prompts combined with tutor feedback had positive effects on students' self-regulated learning competence. Paas et al. (in press) found learners using "tracing" strategies (segmentation plus prediction) performed more efficiently than a non-interactive condition.
- The paper argues interactivity's effectiveness is strongly mediated by prior knowledge: guidelines beneficial for novices can be ineffective or detrimental for experts (citing Lowe 2004 and Schnotz and Rasch 2005).
Methods
- Design: a narrative/theoretical review, not an empirical study. The authors state "hardly any research has been conducted with the purpose of investigating the effect of interactivity on cognitive modeling," so guidelines are synthesized from existing research on motor-skill modeling, multimedia learning, and cognitive load theory.
- Frameworks used: the social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition (observation, imitation, self-control, self-regulation stages), cognitive load theory, and the four-component instructional design (4C/ID) model, which supplies the cognitive processes (elaboration, induction, compilation, strengthening).
- Output: Table 1 classifies each guideline by required level of prior knowledge, behavioral component, cognitive processes supported, and applicable stage.
Limitations
- Stated by the paper: the guidelines are presented in isolation and it is "not clear how they are related"—whether an ideal sequence exists, or whether combining guidelines increases effectiveness, remains unresolved. The authors also note that rapid, reliable measurement of expertise level is a "sine qua non" for successful implementation, and that the proposed Kalyuga and Sweller (2004) assessment method has only been tested with relatively well-structured problems, not ill-structured problems in complex domains.
- Evident from the text: the review offers no primary empirical test of the guidelines for cognitive modeling specifically; supporting evidence is drawn from adjacent literatures (motor-skill modeling, multimedia, medical training), and several cited studies are referenced as in press or as individual experiments rather than a systematic synthesis.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
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Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
0 of 60 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Interpretationreasoning
Modeling should be treated as a first phase in a larger learning framework, not as a single isolated instructional method.
“In this paper we argue that modeling should not be treated as a single, isolated instructional method, but as a first phase that learners have to go through in order to become proficient performers of the modeled behavior.”
- Also stated in: § Modeling and Skill Acquisition · plain
“So modeling cannot be treated in an isolated way, but must be regarded in a larger learning framework.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Also stated in: § Modeling and Skill Acquisition · plain
- Interpretationreasoning
The role of interactivity changes when learners go from pure observation to self-regulated practice.
“This implies that the role of interactivity will also change when learners go from pure observation to self-regulated practice.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Interaction between the learner and the learning environment might be an effective way of getting learners to engage in active processing of the learning materials.
“So interaction between the learner and the learning environment might be an effective way of getting learners to engage in active processing of the learning materials.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Novices starting too early with the imitation stage lack prior knowledge to attend to relevant aspects of their own performance.
“Novices starting too early with the imitation stage lack the prior knowledge to attend to the relevant aspects of their own performance.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisenone given
Working memory has a limited processing capacity inadequate for the amount and complexity of information in modern learning environments.
“Working memory (WM), in which all conscious processing of information takes place, only has a limited processing capacity that is by far inadequate for the amount and complexity of information learners have to process in modern learning environments.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Premisecitation
Active learning enables learners to connect new information with knowledge they already possess.
“Moreover, researchers have advocated active learning because it enables learners to connect new information with the knowledge they already possess (Chi et al. 1989;Mayer 2001;Wittrock 1974).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
Construction and automation of schemas optimizes working memory processing capacity.
“The construction and automation of such schemas-so that they can be processed unconsciouslyis important because it further optimizes the processing capacity of WM.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The transition from observing to self-regulated practice is accompanied by different cognitive processes.
“Moreover, we argue that this transition from observing to self-regulated practice is accompanied by different cognitive processes and that the interaction takes different forms that all facilitate different cognitive processes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
The social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition describes that learners initially observe a model, then practice, and gradually learn to self-regulate their performance.
“The social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition (Schunk and Zimmerman 1997;Zimmerman and Kitsantas 2002) describes how learners initially start with observing a model, but then start practicing and gradually learn how to self-regulate their own performance.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
Interactivity can be effective in video-based models to engage learners in relevant cognitive processes.
“In this review we argue that interactivity can be effective in video-based models to engage learners in relevant cognitive processes.”
- Also stated in: § Guidelines for Interactivity in Modeling · plain
“However, with video-based models, interactivity can stimulate learners to engage in active cognitive processes during observation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Guidelines for Interactivity in Modeling · plain
- Premisecitation
Cognitive load theory emphasizes the limited cognitive capacity of the learner as an important determinant for effective use of instructional methods.
“CLT emphasizes the limited cognitive capacity of the learner as an important determinant for the effective use of instructional methods (Paas et al. 2003(Paas et al. , 2004;;Sweller et al. 1998;Van Merriënboer and Sweller 2005).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationnone given
The opportunity to pause, continue, or move forward/backward enables learners to adapt the video-based model to their cognitive needs.
“The opportunity to pause, continue or move forward and backward enables learners to adapt the video-based model to their cognitive needs (e.g., by going back to a specific action of the model).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
If learners are allowed only a limited degree of freedom in manipulating the model, novices might also apply control over appearance in the observation stage from the beginning.
“In that case novices might also apply control over appearance in the observation stage from the beginning.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Application of some design guidelines can compensate for novices' lack of schemas.
“In the case of novices, the application of some of our design guidelines can compensate for this lack of schemas.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Novice learners found the facility to interact with animations quite unhelpful.
“A study of Lowe (2004) showed that novice learners found the facility to interact with animations quite unhelpful.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lowe 2004 source
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- Interpretationreasoning
Manipulation of the appearance of the instructional event supports elaboration because it enables learners to view the model from a perspective that enables them to connect the new information with their prior knowledge.
“Manipulation of the appearance of the instructional event supports elaboration because it enables learners to view the model form a perspective that enables them to connect the new information with their prior knowledge.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The cues guideline is most appropriate in the observation stage of the social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition.
“This guideline is most appropriate in the observation stage of the social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given
With video-based models, interactivity can stimulate learners to engage in active cognitive processes during observation.
“However, with video-based models, interactivity can stimulate learners to engage in active cognitive processes during observation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationnone given
Studies on modeling of motor skills have investigated instructional techniques such as working in dyads that fit the definition of interactivity.
“However, studies regarding the modeling of motor skills have investigated instructional techniques, such as working in dyads that also fit our definition of interactivity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
For low-experience learners, dissolving cues might engage them in elaboration because it enables them to make the uncued information meaningful by connecting it with their prior knowledge.
“For low experience learners dissolving cues might engage them in elaboration because it enables them to make the uncued information meaningful by connecting it with their prior knowledge.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Elaboration and induction are important for constructing adequate schemas.
“To construct adequate schemas two types of cognitive processes are important; elaboration and induction (Van Merriënboer 1997;Van Merriënboer et al. 2003).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Van Merriënboer 1997
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- cites Van Merriënboer et al. 2003 source
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- Interpretationreasoning
Compilation and strengthening enable learners to automate schemas and release cognitive capacity for controlling and regulating activities associated with self-control and self-regulation stages.
“Compilation and strengthening enable learners to further automate a schema and thus release cognitive capacity for more controlling and regulating activities that are associated with the self-control and self-regulation stages of the social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Interactivity might help learners acquire self-regulation skills.
“In this respect interactivity not only offers support for learning complex skills, but also might help learners to acquire self-regulation skills (Kinzie 1990).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kinzie 1990 source
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- Premisecitation
Signaling in a narrated animation was only effective when both animation and narration were signaled, not when only one was signaled.
“Furthermore, Mautone and Mayer (2001, Experiment 3) investigated the effect of signaling in a narrated animation and found that signaling was only effective when both the animation and the narration were signaled (signaled words were spoken with a slower, deeper intonation), but not when only the animation or the narration was signaled.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Mautone and Mayer 2001 source
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- Interpretationreasoning
For more experienced learners, cues impose an extraneous cognitive load.
“Consequently, for them these cues impose an extraneous cognitive load.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Multimedia studies report a positive effect of learner-controlled pacing when instructional material was segmented.
“Evidence for this suggestion comes from multimedia studies reporting a positive effect of learner controlled pacing when the instructional material was segmented (Mayer and Chandler 2001, Experiment 2;Mayer et al. 2003, Experiment 2a and 2b).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Mayer and Chandler 2001 source
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- cites Mayer et al. 2003
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- Interpretationreasoning
For more experienced learners, cues might present redundant material because they can attend to relevant parts themselves.
“For more experienced learners these cues might present redundant material because they are capable of attending the relevant parts of the instructional material themselves.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
For learners with low expertise, interactive pacing can be problematic because they do not know where and when to apply learner control.
“However, for learners with a low level of expertise, interactive pacing can be problematic, as they do not yet know where and when to apply learner control.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Design guidelines beneficial for novice learners can be ineffective or detrimental for experts.
“Recent research on cognitive load theory, for example, has proven that design guidelines that are beneficial for novice learners can be ineffective or even detrimental when applied to experts (Kalyuga et al. 2003).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kalyuga et al. 2003 source
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- Premisecitation
Compilation and strengthening are the most relevant cognitive processes for automating schemas.
“For the automation of schemas, compilation and strengthening are the most relevant cognitive processes (Anderson 2000;Van Merriënboer 1997;Van Merriënboer et al. 2003).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Anderson 2000
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- cites Van Merriënboer 1997
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- cites Van Merriënboer et al. 2003 source
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- Interpretationcitation
Novice learners might benefit more from a combination of pacing with segmentation by the instructional designer.
“Novice learners might benefit more from a combination of pacing with segmentation by the instructional designer.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Asking learners to explain to themselves aloud what they have understood from a learning task has proved to be an effective instructional method.
“Asking learners to explain to themselves aloud what they have understood from a learning task has proved to be an effective instructional method (Chi et al. 1989;Renkl 1997;Renkl and Atkinson 2002).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisecitation
An alternative emerging from research on 3-D computer visualizations in medical training and visual object recognition is to allow learners only a limited degree of freedom in manipulating the model.
“An alternative, emerging from research on 3-D computer visualizations on medical training and visual object recognition is to allow learners only a limited degree of freedom in manipulating the model (Garg et al. 1999).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Garg et al. 1999 source
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- Premisecitation
Cueing can be even more effective when the amount of necessary visual search is high, such as in complex graphics.
“Some studies report that visual cues do aid learning in multimedia instructions resulting in higher retention scores (e.g., Tabbers et al. 2004), whereas others show that cueing can be even more effective when the amount of necessary visual search, such as in complex graphics, is high (e.g., Jeung et al. 1997).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Jeung et al. 1997 source
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- Interpretationreasoning
The cognitive processes mediated by emerging or dissolving a cue are elaboration and induction.
“The cognitive processes these responses mediate are elaboration and induction.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Induction generalizes concrete learning experiences into more abstract schemas that can be applied to tasks different from those solved during learning.
“In induction learners have to generalize concrete learning experiences (e.g., observation of modeled behavior) into more abstract schemas.More abstract or generalized schemas can also be applied to tasks that are different from the tasks that were solved during learning (Cooper and Sweller 1987).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Cooper and Sweller 1987 source
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- Premisecitation
Studies in medical training and visual object recognition in which learners could manipulate 3-D computer visualizations and observe the instructional material from multiple views suggest that control over appearance can be effective.
“studies in medical training and visual object recognition in which learners could manipulate 3-D computer visualizations and observe the instructional material from multiple views suggest that control over appearance can be effective (Garg et al. 2001;Harman et al. 1999;James et al. 2002).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
When learners have little prior knowledge, elaboration and induction are addressed in the observation and imitation stages to construct initial schemas.
“When learners only have little prior knowledge, elaboration and induction will be addressed in the observation and imitation stages in order to construct initial schemas.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationnone given
Novices typically lack cognitive schemas that reduce working memory burden and enable effective information processing.
“Novices typically lack the cognitive schemas that may reduce the burden on working memory and enable the learner to process information effectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
For high-experience learners, uncued video-based models with the possibility to incite cues when needed might invite them to engage in both elaboration and induction.
“For high experience learners uncued models with the possibility to incite cues when they need them might invite them to engage in both elaboration (i.e., the cued information helps them to select relevant information and connect this with prior knowledge) and induction”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Prior knowledge is the most important factor affecting the effect of instructional events and behavioral responses on learning.
“We consider prior knowledge, which is closely related to task complexity as the most important factor.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
By alternating between observation and practice, the mental representation will be enriched.
“By alternating between observation and practice, the mental representation will be enriched (Weeks and Anderson 2000;Wulf and Shea 2002).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
Learners in the tracing strategies performed more efficiently than learners in the non-interactive instructional condition.
“The results showed that learners in the tracing strategies performed more efficient than learners in the non-interactive instructional condition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Paas et al. (Instructional efficiency of interactivity in traced animation, in press)
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
A rapid and reliable measurement of the expertise level is a sine qua non for successful implementation of interactivity in video-based modeling.
“This makes a rapid and reliable measurement of the expertise level a sine qua non for successful implementation of interactivity in video-based modeling.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: In the social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition, the level of expertise determines when a learner will go from one stage to another.
- Premisecitation
The Kalyuga and Sweller method is only tested with relatively well-structured problems, and not with ill-structured problems in complex domains that can be solved in various ways.
“A limitation to this method, however, is that it is only tested with relatively well-structured problems, and not with ill-structured problems in complex domains that can be solved in various ways.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kalyuga and Sweller (2004) source
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- Premisecitation
The beneficial effect on learning of prompting learners to predict the next step in a process has been replicated in several multimedia studies.
“The beneficial effect on learning of prompting learners to predict the next step in a process has been replicated in several multimedia studies (Hegarty et al. 2003;Mayer et al. 2003;Moreno et al. 2001).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
The alternation between observing and practicing allows learners to process specific information that they would not be able to process when practicing the skill because of the high demand of cognitive resources.
“The alternation between observing and practicing allows learners to process specific information that they would not be able to do when practicing the skill because of the high demand of cognitive resources.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The implementation of interactivity in video-based models meets two focal points of contemporary educational theory.
“To conclude, the implementation of interactivity in video-based models meets two focal points of contemporary educational theory.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
In dyads where each learner performed part of the task and observed the other learner performing another part, demands on working memory decreased without affecting learning performance compared to learners who performed the task individually.
“Results showed that the demands on working memory decreased without affecting learning performance compared to learners that performed the task individually.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Shebilske et al. 1992 source
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- Interpretationreasoning
The cognitive processes promoted by part-task practice comprise compilation but particularly strengthening, that is, increasing the chance that the recurrent skill will be automatically performed under specific conditions.
“The cognitive processes promoted by part-task practice comprise compilation but particularly strengthening, that is, increase the chance that the recurrent skill will be automatically performed under specific conditions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition supports learners in their transition from observers to independent performers of complex skills.
“The model supports learners in their transition from observers to independent performers of complex skills.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Prompting can be used to promote induction, for example, by having learners think about the general applicability of a model's behavior in a specific situation.
“Moreover, the prompting can be used to promote induction, for example, by having learners think about the general applicability of a model's behavior in a specific situation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The reflection prompts guideline can be applied in both the self-control and self-regulation stages of the social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition.
“Because reflection prompts aim to help learners to evaluate strategies to perform a task, this guideline can be applied in both the self-control and self-regulation stage of the social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given
The tracing strategy keeps information available in a sequence of key frames (the segments), rather than having it replaced by the ongoing performance.
“The tracing strategy keeps information available in a sequence of key frames (i.e., the segments), rather than having it replaced by the ongoing performance.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
After initial modeling, learners have constructed a preliminary mental representation that can be further refined through the information originating from performing the skill.
“After initial modeling learners have constructed a preliminary mental representation that can be further refined through the information originating from performing the skill.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Personalized task selection is only useful when learners have sufficient (prior) knowledge to assess their performance.
“This type of interactivity is only useful when learners have sufficient (prior) knowledge to assess their performance.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Reflection prompts combined with tutor feedback had positive effects on the development of students' self-regulated learning competence.
“An indication for the practical value of reflection prompts was provided by a study of Van den Boom et al. (2004) who found that reflection prompts combined with tutor feedback had positive effects on the development of students' self-regulated learning competence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Van den Boom et al. (2004) source
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- Interpretationreasoning
For learners who work in dyads, the typical errors and the information presented when these errors are corrected give learners the opportunity to induction, that is, to classify these errors and their corrections and in this way construct more generalized or specific schemas.
“For learners who work in dyads, the typical errors and the information that is presented when these errors are corrected gives learners the opportunity to induction, that is, classify these errors and their corrections and in this way construct more generalized or specific schemas.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The prediction guideline is relevant in both the observation and imitation stages of the social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition.
“These cognitive processes make the prediction guideline relevant in both the observation and imitation stages of the social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The information about the correction of an error might incite elaboration, that is, activate prior knowledge of learners and integrate it with the new information.
“Moreover, the information about the correction of an error might incite elaboration, that is, activate prior knowledge of learners and integrate it with the new information.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
In complex tasks it might be necessary to have learners engage in part-task practice, that is, to practice recurrent skills with the purpose to automate these skills and release cognitive resources for other aspects of the constituent skill.
“In complex tasks it might be necessary to have learners engage in part-task practice, that is, to perform tasks in which they have to practice such recurrent skills with the purpose to automate these skills and release cognitive resources for others aspects of the constituent skill (Van Merriënboer 1997).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Van Merriënboer 1997
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- Interpretationreasoning
A guideline effective for a low-experience learner may be ineffective for a high-experience learner.
“A guideline effective for a low experience learner may be ineffective for a high experience learner.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given
Peers working in dyads are likely to make the same kind of typical errors.
“Peers working in dyads are likely to make the same kind of typical errors.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
In a video-game task, dyads in which one learner performed and the other observed while switching roles achieved better transfer scores than learners who only practiced or a control group.
“A study with a video-game task revealed better transfer scores for dyads in which one learner performed and the other observed while switching roles than for a situation in which learners only practiced or for a control group (Shea et al. 2000).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Shea et al. 2000 source
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- Interpretationreasoning
The dyads guideline will be most effective in the imitation stage of the social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition.
“Whereas dyads always imply some performance this guideline will be most effective in the imitation stage.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The level of expertise has a strong mediating influence on the effectiveness of the interactivity guidelines.
“Secondly, the level of expertise has a strong mediating influence on the effectiveness of the guidelines.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
A method proposed by Kalyuga and Sweller (2004) requires learners to use schemas in order to recognize a problem state and retrieve the appropriate next solution step.
“A method proposed by Kalyuga and Sweller (2004) requires learners to use schemas in order to recognize a problem state and retrieve the appropriate next solution step,”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kalyuga and Sweller (2004) source
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- Interpretationreasoning
The personalized task selection guideline can be applied in both the self-control and self-regulation stages of the social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition.
“Therefore, this guideline can be applied in both the self-control and self-regulation stage of the social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
The combination of pacing and segmentation has already shown the promise of combining interactivity guidelines.
“The combination of pacing and segmentation already has shown the promise of such an approach (Mayer and Chandler 2001;Mayer et al. 2003).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Mayer and Chandler 2001 source
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- cites Mayer et al. 2003
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- Premisecitation
Recent studies in multimedia learning have revealed that interactivity can have a detrimental effect on learning, imposing extraneous cognitive load instead of germane cognitive load.
“In the field of multimedia learning some recent studies have indeed revealed that interactivity can have a detrimental effect on learning, imposing extraneous cognitive load instead of germane cognitive load (Lowe 2004;Schnotz and Rasch 2005).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 32
- May combine two claims. 23
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningThe goal of reducing extraneous cognitive load and maximizing germane cognitive load can be used as a blueprint for designing interactivity in the social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition.
“The goal of reducing extraneous cognitive load and maximizing germane cognitive load can be used as a blueprint for the design of interactivity in the social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationLearning motor skills by observing a model is a successful and well-researched instructional technique.
“Learning motor skills by observing a model that performs the desired actions and behavior has been a successful and well researched instructional technique for the last 30 years (McCullagh et al. 1989;Wetzel et al. 1994;Wulf and Shea 2002).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites McCullagh et al. 1989
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- cites Wetzel et al. 1994
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- cites Wulf and Shea 2002 source
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May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningInteraction takes different forms that all facilitate different cognitive processes.
“Moreover, we argue that this transition from observing to self-regulated practice is accompanied by different cognitive processes and that the interaction takes different forms that all facilitate different cognitive processes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe transition from observation to performance must take place timely; both delayed and premature start with actual performance might hamper learning.
“It is essential that the transition from only observation to performance takes place timely.We concur with Schunk and Zimmerman (1997) that both a delayed and premature start with actual performance might hamper learning.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Schunk and Zimmerman 1997 source
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningHuman's limited cognitive capacity requires optimal support for learners in the transition from observation to self-regulated practice.
“Finally, we contend that human's limited cognitive capacity requires optimal support for learners in this transition process.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenThe available capacity for germane processing depends on the intrinsic difficulty of the learning materials, which is mainly beyond the control of the instructional designer and depends on the learner's prior knowledge.
“The available capacity for any germane process depends on the intrinsic difficulty of the learning materials, which is mainly beyond the control of the instructional designer, as it is dependent on the learner's prior knowledge.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Premisenone givenInstructional designers should reduce extraneous cognitive load to a minimum and maximize germane load within working memory limits.
“The general goal for instructional design is to reduce extraneous load to a minimum, and maximize germane load to a level that remains within working memory limits.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationSkills can be optimally acquired in four sequential stages: observation, emulation/imitation, self-control, and self-regulation.
“The model contends that skills can be optimally acquired in four sequential stages.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationLong-term memory has virtually unlimited capacity and can serve as added processing capacity through schemas.
“The second structure, long-term memory, is a knowledge base with a virtually unlimited capacity that can serve as added processing capacity by means of schemas, that is, cognitive structures in which separate elements are aggregated in one specialized element that can be processed by WM as a single element (Paas et al. 2003).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Paas et al. 2003 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningNovices have to be supported when they start to learn complex skills and this support gradually has to be faded.
“The assumptions of cognitive load theory imply that novices have to be supported when they start to learn complex skills and that this support gradually has to be faded.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenHardly any research has investigated the effect of interactivity on cognitive modeling.
“As far as we know hardly any research has been conducted with the purpose of investigating the effect of interactivity on cognitive modeling.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenNovices in particular will have problems attending to relevant aspects of instructional material and will engage in high visual search at the cost of cognitive capacity.
“Novices in particular will have problems attending to the relevant aspects of the instructional material and will engage in high visual search at the cost of cognitive capacity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenMultimedia learning research has produced guidelines for interactivity that can be useful for cognitive modeling.
“Moreover, multimedia learning research has produced guidelines for interactivity that can be useful for our purposes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationnone givenCognitive interactivity aims at both processing information and metacognitive processes like monitoring.
“As indicated, cognitive interactivity not only aims at processing the information, but also at metacognitive processes like monitoring.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenNovices might have problems with deciding where and how to engage in control of the perspective or appearance of the task or the performance of a model.
“Similar to the pacing/segmentation guideline, novices might have problems with deciding where and how to engage in control of the perspective or appearance of the task or the performance of a model.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationnone givenModeling is only the first of four stages in becoming a proficient performer in the social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition.
“Moreover, we embedded modeling within the social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition in which it is only the first of four stages in becoming a proficient performer.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
PremisereasoningThe relation between instructional events and behavioral responses is reciprocal.
“This relation is reciprocal, meaning that not only instructional events trigger behavioral responses, but also that in turn the behavioral responses of learners determine the occurrence of specific instructional events.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningMerely clicking a button without the purpose to elicit desired cognitive processes cannot be regarded as an interaction relevant for learning.
“Merely clicking a button to get to the next screen without the purpose to elicit desired cognitive processes can therefore not be regarded as an interaction relevant for learning.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
PremisecitationThe focus of interactivity research should be on the cognitive processes that learners engage in rather than the technical aspects of interaction.
“We concur with Kennedy (2004) that the focus of interactivity research should be on the cognitive processes that learners engage in rather than the technical aspects of interaction.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kennedy 2004
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningThe mediating role of behavioral responses between instructional events and intended cognitive processes is of utmost importance in interactivity.
“The mediating role of behavioral responses between the instructional event and the intended cognitive processes is of the utmost importance in interactivity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningMore experienced learners already possess schemas to process information effectively, so these guidelines may yield less effective instruction for them.
“More experienced learners, however, already possess schemas to process information effectively and these guidelines may yield instruction that is less effective for them.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningThe cognitive processes facilitated by pacing mainly comprise elaboration: learners can go to relevant information and make explicit connections with prior knowledge.
“The cognitive processes facilitated by pacing comprise mainly elaboration: learners can go to information that is relevant to them and make explicit connections with their prior knowledge.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenThe nature of the behavioral response determines at least partly the quality of the cognitive process.
“In this respect the nature of the behavioral response determines at least partly the quality of the cognitive process.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationActivities that yield germane load for low expertise students may yield extraneous load for high expertise students and vice versa.
“In addition, Schnotz and Rasch (2005) showed that activities that yield a germane load for low expertise students may yield an extraneous load for high expertise students and vice versa.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Schnotz and Rasch 2005 source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationVisual cues aid learning in multimedia instructions resulting in higher retention scores.
“Some studies report that visual cues do aid learning in multimedia instructions resulting in higher retention scores (e.g., Tabbers et al. 2004), whereas others show that cueing can be even more effective when the amount of necessary visual search, such as in complex graphics, is high (e.g., Jeung et al. 1997).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tabbers et al. 2004 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe control-over-appearance guideline might only be effective when learners have already observed a few models or when they are in the self-control or self-regulation stage and go back to the observation stage.
“Therefore, this guideline might only be effective when learners have already observed a few models or when they are in the self-control or self-regulation stage and go back to the observation stage.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningPacing can best be implemented in the observation stage.
“For this reason, pacing can best be implemented in the observation stage.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn Schwan and Riempp (2004), control of pacing was heavily used, especially with increasing knot difficulty, resulting in better understanding and less practice time.
“This control of pacing was heavily used, especially with increasing knot difficulty.The more difficult the knots became, the more use of control options was made, which resulted in a better understanding of the underlying processes and less practice time was needed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Schwan and Riempp 2004 source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningDepending on specific cognitive consequences, interactivity might help but sometimes even hinder learning.
“Dependent on the specific cognitive consequences, interactivity might help but sometimes even hinder learning.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningGuidelines for interactivity should address both functional and cognitive components and describe behavioral actions/responses and the cognitive processes they mediate.
“We concur that guidelines for interactivity in learning environments should address both the functional and the cognitive component, and describe what behavioral actions and/or responses are addressed and which cognitive processes they mediate.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenCompilation and strengthening are mainly related to repetition, which provides little opportunity for interactivity.
“Although we will provide a guideline that addresses compilation and strengthening, these cognitive processes are mainly related to repetition which provides little opportunity for interactivity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningFrom the second stage onward, learners perform themselves and engage in behavioral actions that change the instructional event, providing opportunities for interactivity.
“From the second stage of the model onward, learners start to perform themselves and engage in behavioral actions that change the instructional event.This provides ample opportunities for interactivity, for example, by directing their behavioral actions in such a way that the intended cognitive processes will occur.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisereasoningElaboration makes new information meaningful by integrating it with prior knowledge, leading to more elaborated schemas with increased accessibility, better recall, and higher transfer.
“In elaboration, learners have to make the new information meaningful by integrating it with the information they already possess (i.e., prior knowledge), that is, they use what they already know to structure and understand the new information.In this way the schema becomes more elaborated with an increased accessibility, better recall, and higher transfer of learning.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningCompilation and strengthening should already be addressed in the imitation stage and, if necessary, continued in the self-control and self-regulation stages.
“This implies that compilation and strengthening should already be addressed in the imitation stage and, if necessary, continued in the selfcontrol and self-regulation stages.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationThe interactivity model differentiates between functional interactivity and cognitive interactivity.
“The interactivity model differentiates between two highly related and dependent levels of interactivity.The first level, functional interactivity, comprises the behavioral responses learners engage in when they face an instructional event.”
- Also stated in: § Interactivity in Electronic Learning Environments · plain
“The second level, cognitive interactivity, proposes that these behavioral responses mediate between the instructional events and (meta)cognitive processes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kennedy 2004
Not checked in the free run.
- Also stated in: § Interactivity in Electronic Learning Environments · plain
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningWhen enriched schemas enable self-regulative activities, elaboration and induction can also be addressed in the self-control and self-regulation stages.
“When these enriched schemas enable learners to engage in self-regulative activities, like comparing strategies, elaboration and induction can also be addressed in the self-control and self-regulation stages.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationObservers of peer models learned to identify and eliminate errors, whereas observers of expert models missed the information of error correction.
“They also found that observers of peer models learned to identify and eliminate such errors, whereas observers of expert models missed the information of error correction.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kitsantas et al. (2000)
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningCompilation and strengthening aim at releasing cognitive capacity for self-regulating activities.
“As argued earlier, compilation and strengthening aim at releasing cognitive capacity for self-regulating activities.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationReflection can be conceived of as a strategy or skill that operates on other strategies, that is, a form of personal mental experiment conducted to compare strategies to each other.
“According to Borkowski et al. (1990), reflection can be conceived of as a strategy or skill that operates on other strategies, that is, a form of personal mental experiment which is conducted to compare strategies to each other.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Borkowski et al. (1990)
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
Premisenone givenThe performance of complex tasks involves the integration and coordination of skills, knowledge, and attitudes.
“The performance of complex tasks involves the integration and coordination of skills, knowledge, and attitudes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenHaving the learner self-assess their performance and level of expertise makes that elaboration and induction are involved as cognitive processes.
“Having the learner self-assess their performance and level of expertise makes that elaboration and induction are involved as cognitive processes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningKeeping information available in the trace decreases extraneous cognitive load and frees up cognitive capacity that can then be used for cognitive processes that are beneficial for learning.
“The trace keeps information available and thus decreases extraneous cognitive load and frees up cognitive capacity that then can be used for cognitive processes that are beneficial for learning.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningInteractivity should not only be described in terms of behavioral components, that is, actions and strategies from learners that affect the instructional event, but should also describe the cognitive processes that are mediated through the behavioral components.
“Moreover, we contended that interactivity should not only be described in terms of behavioral components, that is, actions and strategies from learners that affect the instructional event (i.e., the task or model), but also describe the cognitive processes that are mediated through the behavioral components.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn a dart-throwing study, peer models made key errors but promptly corrected these errors.
“In a study about dart-throwing, Kitsantas et al. (2000) found that peer models made key errors but that they promptly corrected these errors.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kitsantas et al. (2000)
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenThe final goal of modeling is to have learners perform the skill themselves.
“However, we argued that the final goal of modeling is to have learners perform the skill themselves.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningPersonalized task selection with part-task practice is most appropriate in the imitation stage of the social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition, although it may be used in the self-control and self-regulation stages as well.
“For this reason, personalized task selection with part-task practice is most appropriate in the imitation stage of the social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition, although it may be used in the self-control and self-regulation stages as well.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenThe cognitive processes in prediction comprise elaboration: the activation of prior knowledge and subsequent integration with newly presented information.
“The cognitive processes in prediction comprise elaboration: the activation of prior knowledge and subsequent integration with newly presented information.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisenone givenConstituent skills of complex tasks involve both recurrent skills that are highly consistent across different tasks and non-recurrent skills that need to be adapted to the specific characteristics of a task.
“These constituent skills involve both recurrent skills that are highly consistent across different tasks and non-recurrent skills that need to be adapted to the specific characteristics of a task.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningThe cognitive processes involved in reflection prompts comprise those processes that enable learners to compare strategies and connect them with specific situations.
“The cognitive processes involved in reflection prompts comprise those processes that enable learners to compare strategies and connect them with specific situations.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningBoth elaboration and induction are facilitated by reflection prompts.
“In this sense both elaboration and induction are facilitated by reflection prompts.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe Kalyuga and Sweller method has promising results because the time involved in assessing expertise levels was drastically reduced compared with more traditional assessment methods.
“The method has promising results, because the time involved in assessing expertise levels was drastically reduced compared with more traditional assessment methods.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Kalyuga and Sweller (2004) source
Not checked in the free run.
The paper relies on this without support.
In the social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition, the level of expertise determines when a learner will go from one stage to another.
“In the social cognitive model of sequential skill acquisition, the level of expertise determines when a learner will go from one stage to another.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cognitive processes should be focused on the construction of schemas and the automation of these schemas in order to release cognitive resources.
“Cognitive load theory emphasizes that cognitive processes should be focused on the construction of schemas and the automation of these schemas in order to release cognitive resources.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Elaboration and induction are cognitive processes that facilitate schema construction, whereas compilation and strengthening facilitate schema automation.
“Elaboration and induction are cognitive processes that facilitate schema construction, whereas compilation and strengthening facilitate schema automation.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
In electronic learning environments, reflection prompts can be used to provoke learners' reflection on the way they performed a task and to compare it with other strategies to perform the task.
“It is assumed that in electronic learning environments reflection prompts can be used to provoke learners' reflection on the way they performed a task and compare it with other strategies to perform the task (Butler 1998;Seale and Cann 2000;Winne and Stockley 1998).”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The transient information effect provides a possible explanation why some forms of user-interactivity, segmentation, and attention cueing improve the effectiveness of animations.
“The transient information effect provides a possible explanation why some forms of user-interactivity (for an overview see, Wouters et al. 2007), segmentation (for an overview see, Spanjers et al. 2010), and attention cueing (for an overview see, De Koning et al. 2009) improve the effectiveness of animations.”
From An Evolutionary Upgrade of Cognitive Load Theory: Using the Human Motor System and Collaboration to Support the Learning of Complex Cognitive Tasks (2012) · cites this paper as Wouters et al. 2007
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Cueing table omits induction for experienced learners
MinorThe text says emerging cues can support both elaboration and induction for experienced learners, but Table 1 lists only elaboration for that guideline.
“For high experience learners uncued models with the possibility to incite cues when they need them might invite them to engage in both elaboration (i.e., the cued information helps them to select relevant information and connect this with prior knowledge) and induction”
“| Emerging cues | High | Learner emerges cues in an uncued | Elaboration | Observation |”
The citation lists haven’t been fetched yet
References 80 · Cited by 145
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (1997). Training complex cognitive skills. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
- Authors
- Wouters, P., Tabbers, H. K., & Paas, F.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- Erasmus University Rotterdam (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Wouters, Pieter
- Venue
- Educational Psychology Review
- Published
- 2007-05-26
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 327-342
- ISSN
- 1040-726X (ISSN-L)
- 1573-336X
- OpenAlex
- W2148621688
- Cited by
- 145
- References
- 80
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 9.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Educational Psychology Review (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- RePub (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
- Keywords
- interactivity, modeling instruction, four-component instructional design model, schema construction, reflection prompts, dyads, student engagement
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