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A Systematic Review of Technology-assisted Self-Management Interventions for Chronic Pain: Looking Across Treatment Modalities
Abstract
OBJECTIVES: The use of technology to provide chronic pain self-management interventions has increased in the recent years. Individual studies have primarily focused on a single technology-assisted modality and direct comparisons of different technology-assisted modalities are rare. Thus, little is known about the relative strengths and weaknesses of each technology-assisted modality. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This article is a systematic review of technology-assisted self-management interventions for chronic nonheadache, noncancer pain in adults. We examined 3 treatment modalities: telephone, interactive voice response, and Internet. Electronic searches of OVID MEDLINE, OVID PsychINFO, and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews were conducted. Forty-four articles including 9890 participants were reviewed. RESULTS: Across modalities, the existing evidence suggests that technology-assisted psychological interventions are efficacious for improving self-management of chronic pain in adults. All modalities have been shown to provide benefit and no clearly superior modality has emerged. The primary gaps in the literature are lack of in-person comparison groups, lack of direct comparison among technology-assisted modalities, and heterogeneity of methods and interventions that limit comparability across studies and modalities. DISCUSSION: Future trials should focus on direct comparisons of technology-assisted interventions with in-person treatment and head to head comparisons of different technology-assisted modalities. Additional areas of focus include quantifying the cost of technology-assisted interventions, examining the effect of treatment "dose" on outcomes, and establishing guidelines for developing treatments for the technology-assisted environment.
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“This justifies further investigation using a non-inferiority trial design.35 36”
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“the need for more studies reporting on the feasibility, usability, and efficacy of eHealth intervention programs for patients living with chronic pain is evident [20,34].”
From Digital Self-Management in Support of Patients Living With Chronic Pain: Feasibility Pilot Study (2020) · cites this paper as [34]
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“Given the potential for flexibility in use, eHealth interventions may introduce more cost-effective treatment options, supplementing usual care and even reducing the need for direct involvement from health care providers [28,29].”
From A User-Centered Approach to an Evidence-Based Electronic Health Pain Management Intervention for People With Chronic Pain: Design and Development of EPIO (2020) · cites this paper as [28]
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“, Web-based, telephonebased, interactive voice response) to improve access; in terms of outcomes, these adapted formats are comparable to traditional ones (Heapy et al., 2015).”
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“Finally, a recent review indicated that technology-assisted (telephone, interactive voice response and Internet) pain selfmanagement may also be an effective approach and a strategy for facilitating delivery (Heapy et al., 2015).”
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“It was suggested that future studies should focus more on methodological uniformity and quality, outcomes at long-term follow-up, direct one-to-one comparisons with various active treatments, and/or extended variety in participants and treatment settings [18, 24, 26].”
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Vandersman, P., & Phillips, J. L. (2016) · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2016.08.008 · Cited by 70
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“Another implementation avenue of digital technologies has been in the management of chronic conditions such as pain, which has caused an influx of scientific literature on digital health solutions [4,5].”
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Self-citationButler, S., Sculley, D., Santos, D., Fellas, A., Gironès, X., Singh‐Grewal, D., & Coda, A. (2021) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/30457 · Cited by 48
“However, it is this direct comparison that can reveal a more effective intervention [104].”
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Digital Self-Management in Support of Patients Living With Chronic Pain: Feasibility Pilot Study
Bostrøm, K., Børøsund, E., Varsi, C., Eide, H., Flakk Nordang, E., Schreurs, K. M., Waxenberg, L. B., Weiss, K. E., Morrison, E. J., Cvancarova Småstuen, M., et al. (2020) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/23893 · Cited by 34
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“Recent years have witnessed an increase in the use of information technology (IT) for supporting self-management in patients with chronic diseases [13].”
BackgroundSocial Robots for Supporting Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Diagnosis and Treatment
Laban, G., Ben‐Zion, Z., & Cross, E. S. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.752874 · Cited by 44
“Technology-assisted clinical interventions are becoming increasingly common in the health care field and in combating mental health as these interventions are often aimed at improving access to and cost-effectiveness of care (49–51).”
BackgroundTele-yoga for Chronic Pain: Current Status and Future Directions
Mathersul, D. C., Mahoney, L., & Bayley, P. J. (2018) · Global Advances in Health and Medicine · doi:10.1177/2164956118766011 · Cited by 37
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“For chronic pain specifically, Heapy et al. (2015) found that technology-assisted psychological interventions delivered via telephone, interactive voice response, and the Internet were equally efficacious at improving self-management among adults.”
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“In recent decades, information and communication technologies (ICTs) have provided a number of options for self-monitoring, self-management, and self-initiated accessibility to care, including Internet programs [14, 15], telephone support [16, 17], telephone continuing care [18–21], text messaging [22, 23], and multis…”
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“7 Such modalities also have the potential to improve treatment durability, because individuals can obtain support and reinforcement of skills after formal treat-ment has ceased.”
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Self-citationOnline Dialectical Behavioral Therapy for Emotion Dysregulation in People With Chronic Pain
Norman‐Nott, N., Briggs, N., Hesam‐Shariati, N., Wilks, C. R., Schroeder, J., Diwan, A. D., Suh, J., Newby, J. M., Newton-John, T. R. O., Quidé, Y., et al. (2025) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.6908 · Cited by 19
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“For example, technology-supported self-management interventions, such as telephone, interactive voice response, and website interventions have shown benefits in this population (Heapy et al., 2015).”
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Predictors of Participation in a Nonpharmacological Intervention for Chronic Back Pain
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Valenza-Peña, G., Núñez, J. M., Ciuró, A. H., Navas‐Otero, A., López‐López, L., Valenza, M. C., & Martos, I. C. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11243161 · Cited by 14
“The results of this systematic review and meta-analysis are consistent with previous systematic reviews conducted in the population with chronic pain, as demonstrated in several studies [59–61].”
ResultSlattery, B. W., Haugh, S., Francis, K., O’Connor, L. L., Barrett, K., Dwyer, C. P., O’Higgins, S., Egan, J., & McGuire, B. E. (2017) · Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1186/s13643-017-0414-x · Cited by 13
“conclude, ‘current research has yet to find that one of the technology-assisted interventions is superior to the others’ [3].”
BackgroundInfluentialPrimary care experiences of people who live with chronic pain and receive opioids to manage pain
Marie, B. S. (2016) · Journal of the American Association of Nurse Practitioners · doi:10.1002/2327-6924.12342 · Cited by 12
“…care from clinicto web-based monitor, education, and support to help reduce absenteeism from work and offer convenient healthcare encounters (Heapy et al., 2015), (b) providing system-based education of healthcare providers and systems coordinators that the negative consequences of…”
BackgroundSolar, C. A., Halat, A. M., MacLean, R. R., Rajeevan, H., Williams, D. A., Krein, S. L., Heapy, A. A., Bair, M. J., Kerns, R. D., & Higgins, D. M. (2020) · Translational Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1093/tbm/ibaa098 · Cited by 11
Self-citationAreli, E., Godfrey, H. K., Perry, M., Hempel, D., Saipe, B., Grainger, R., Hale, L. A., & Devan, H. (2020) · British Journal of Pain · doi:10.1177/2049463720978264 · Cited by 12
Pain Rehabilitation’s Effect on People in Chronic Pain: A Prospective Cohort Study
Skúladóttir, H., Björnsdóttir, A., Holden, J. E., Gunnarsdóttir, Þ. J., Halldórsdóttir, S., & Sveinsdóttir, H. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph181910306 · Cited by 11
Eiken, A.-G., Nordanger, D. Ø., Nes, L. S., & Varsi, C. (2022) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/34458 · Cited by 12
“A study-specific interview guide was developed based on literature examining and describing self-management of chronic pain, digital self-management interventions, and blended care health care delivery [4,24,27,30,35,36,39].”
BackgroundTian, L., Wen, Y., Li, J., Guan, J., Li, T., & Fan, J. (2025) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/71196 · Cited by 9
“Through remote web-based interventions, patients can obtain various forms of support at home and receive medical services more cost-effectively [17,18].”
Mann, E. G., Harrison, M. B., LeFort, S. M., & VanDenKerkhof, E. G. (2017) · Pain Management Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.pmn.2017.04.006 · Cited by 10
Rosser, B. A., Fisher, E., Eccleston, C., Duggan, G. B., & Keogh, E. (2021) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd013863 · Cited by 10
Anselmo, A., Pagano, M. C., Cappadona, I., Cardile, D., Calabrò, R. S., & Corallo, F. (2025) · Current Pain and Headache Reports · doi:10.1007/s11916-024-01340-5 · Cited by 12
“Autogenic training (AT) is a commonly used self-help relaxation technique that is easily applicable in daily life for managing chronic pain [17].”
Sheth, K., Ritter, P. L., Lorig, K. R., Steinman, L. E., & FallCreek, S. J. (2021) · Journal of Applied Gerontology · doi:10.1177/07334648211062805 · Cited by 9
“These studies are well summarized in a review by Heapy et al., 2015.”
MethodZhang, T., Tian, Y., Yin, Y., Sun, W., Tang, L., Tang, R., Tian, Y., Gong, S., & Tian, S. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e24514 · Cited by 8
Physical rehabilitation research and pain science
Sterling, M. M., & Keefe, F. J. (2021) · Pain · doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000002326 · Cited by 8
Burke, E., Renna, T. D., Mustafa, N., Ginter, C., Carter, W., Corkery, C., Sheffe, S., Wilson, R. A., Lemos, N. L. B. M., & Bosma, R. L. (2024) · Women s Health · doi:10.1177/17455057231224960 · Cited by 7
“18 However, there is little evidence for online self-management programming specific to persistent pelvic pain, a highly stigmatized pain condition.”
BackgroundEaton, L. H., Jang, M. K., Jensen, M. P., Pike, K. C., Heitkemper, M. M., & Doorenbos, A. Z. (2022) · Supportive Care in Cancer · doi:10.1007/s00520-022-07498-1 · Cited by 11
Technological Interventions for Pain Management
Suso-Ribera, C., Castilla, D., Martínez-Borba, V., Jaén, I., Botella, C., Baños, R. M., & García-Palacios, A. (2022) · Comprehensive Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818697-8.00009-1 · Cited by 6
Niiberg-Pikksööt, T., Laas, K., Aluoja, A., & Braschinsky, M. (2024) · PLOS Digital Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pdig.0000295 · Cited by 8
Krutter, S., Schuessler, N., Kutschar, P., Šabić, E., Dellinger, J. K., Klausner, T., Nestler, N., Beasley, M., Henderson, B., Pitzer, S., et al. (2022) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2022-062159 · Cited by 6
Robotics Technology for Pain Treatment and Management: A Review
Higgins, A., Llewellyn, A. M., Dures, E. K., & Caleb-Solly, P. (2022) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-24667-8_47 · Cited by 7
Reuman, L., Solar, C. A., MacLean, R. R., Halat, A. M., Rajeevan, H., Williams, D. A., Heapy, A. A., Bair, M. J., Krein, S. L., Kerns, R. D., et al. (2022) · Translational Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1093/tbm/ibab165 · Cited by 5
Self-citationSimmich, J., Ross, M. H., Andrews, N. E., Vaezipour, A., & Russell, T. G. (2023) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/46881 · Cited by 6
“This reality underscores the importance of innovation to improve service delivery, which could potentially be achieved through digital health technology [16-18].”
Cost-effectiveness of a chronic pain intervention for people living with HIV (PLWH)
Merlin, J. S., Westfall, A. O., Johnson, M. O., Kerns, R. D., Bair, M. J., Kertesz, S. G., Turan, J. M., Clay, O. J., Starrels, J. L., & Kilgore, M. L. (2017) · Journal of Medical Economics · doi:10.1080/13696998.2017.1377719 · Cited by 5
Self-citationShaygan, M., Jaberi, A., Firozian, R., Yazdani, Z., & Zarifsanaiey, N. (2022) · Investigación y Educación en Enfermería · doi:10.17533/udea.iee.v40n1e13 · Cited by 5
“(11) However, the efficacy of these programs is variable due to methodological inconsistencies in the literature, including different outcome measures, key program content, types of control groups used, and clinician involvement.(12) Given the typically small to moderate effect sizes reported of Internet-based pain ma…”
BackgroundHaugh, S., O’Connor, L. L., Slattery, B. W., Hanlon, M. L. D., Flynn, J., Quinn, S., Jennings, C., & McGuire, B. E. (2019) · HRB Open Research · doi:10.12688/hrbopenres.12953.1 · Cited by 6
“The use of eHealth interventions enable patients to overcome a number of treatment barriers, including the cost of face-to-face treatment, unavailability of qualified clinicians, and travel and mobility issues (Heapy et al., 2015; Liaw & Humphreys, 2006; Stroetmann et al., 2006).”
BackgroundSharma, N., Modi, D., Nathwani, A., Pandya, B. K., & Joshi, J. (2020) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2020.07.16.20154229 · Cited by 6
“Previous studies have found telehealth interventions for chronic pain feasible and possibly effective, including pain management, 13 physical exercise, 14 and psychological interventions.”
Salay, M., Edwards, K. A., Winstanley, E. L., Bachrach, R. L., Bulls, H. W., Hanmer, J., Liebschutz, J. M., Robbins, J. L., Wilson, J. D., Yu, L., et al. (2024) · Substance Use & Addiction Journal · doi:10.1177/29767342241261562 · Cited by 5
“30,31 The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) National Pain Strategy highlighted PSM as an ideal approach to implementing and broadly disseminating behavioral pain interventions, 32 and therefore is the basis of this study intervention.”
Strahl, A., Graichen, H., Haas, H., Hube, R., Perka, C., Rolvien, T., & Hubert, J. (2022) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-022-06662-6 · Cited by 4
“In addition, eHealth may improve cost-effectiveness as patients can receive time- and space-independent support before and after treatment [19, 20, 21].”
BackgroundSvanholm, F., Turesson, C., Löfgren, M., & Björk, M. (2023) · JMIR Human Factors · doi:10.2196/46878 · Cited by 5
“Feasibility studies evaluate the quality of an intervention before moving on to more large-scale studies [26].”
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Pain self‐management: theory and process for clinicians
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Bosma, R. L., Mustafa, N., Burke, E., Alsius, A., Bisson, E. J., Cooper, L., Salomons, T. V., Galica, J., Poulin, P. A., Wiggin, M., et al. (2024) · Pain Management Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.pmn.2024.10.020 · Cited by 2
Metadata
- Authors
- Heapy, A. A., Higgins, D. M., Cervone, D., Wandner, L., Fenton, B. T., & Kerns, R. D.
- Affiliations
- Boston University (US)
- VA Connecticut Healthcare System (US)
- Yale University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Heapy, Alicia A.
- Cervone, Dana
- Wandner, Laura
- Fenton, Brenda T.
- Kerns, Robert D.
- Venue
- The Clinical Journal of Pain
- Published
- 2015-06
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 470-492
- ISSN
- 0749-8047 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2049541278
- Cited by
- 128
- References
- 62
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 2
- FWCI
- 1.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Clinical Journal of Pain (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Physical Therapy, Sports Therapy and Rehabilitation › Musculoskeletal pain and rehabilitation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Digital Mental Health Interventions
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Mobile Health and mHealth Applications
- Keywords
- chronic pain, self-management interventions, technology-based interventions, telephone-delivered intervention, interactive voice response, online intervention, psychological intervention, treatment dose
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Self Care, Telephone, Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic, Internet, Chronic Pain, Pain Management
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