Stacked Intelligent Metasurface Performs a 2D DFT in the Wave Domain for DOA Estimation
Open accessAbstract
Staked intelligent metasurface (SIM) based techniques are developed to perform two-dimensional (2D) direction-of-arrival (DOA) estimation. In contrast to conventional designs, an advanced SIM in front of a receiver array automatically performs the 2D discrete Fourier transform (DFT) as the incident waves propagate through it. To arrange for the SIM to carry out this task, we design a gradient descent algorithm for iteratively updating the phase shift of each meta-atom in the SIM to minimize the fitting error between the SIM's response and the 2D DFT matrix. To further improve the DOA estimation accuracy, we configure the phase shifts in the input layer of the SIM to generate a set of 2D DFT matrices having orthogonal spatial frequency bins. Extensive numerical simulations verify the capability of a well-trained SIM to perform the 2D DFT. Specifically, it is demonstrated that a SIM having an optical computational speed achieves an MSE of 10–4in 2D DOA estimation.
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Numerical simulations have confirmed that an optimized SIM can perform DOA estimation with remarkable speed and accuracy, achieving an MSE of -40 dB.
“Numerical simulations have confirmed that an optimized SIM can perform DOA estimation with remarkable speed and accuracy, achieving an MSE of -40 dB.”
From Emerging Technologies in Intelligent Metasurfaces: Shaping the Future of Wireless Communications (2026) · cites this paper as [114]
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A programmable diffractive deep neural network based on a digital-coding metasurface array
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Emerging Technologies in Intelligent Metasurfaces: Shaping the Future of Wireless Communications
An, J., Debbah, M., Cui, T. J., Chen, Z. N., & Yuen, C. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.1109/tap.2025.3571069 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“In [114] and [26], an SIM was utilized to estimate the 2-”
Self-citationMulti-user ISAC through Stacked Intelligent Metasurfaces: New Algorithms and Experiments
Wang, Z., Liu, H., Zhang, J., Xiong, R., Wan, K., Qian, X., Di Renzo, M., & Qiu, R. C. (2024) · GLOBECOM 2024 - 2024 IEEE Global Communications Conference · doi:10.1109/globecom52923.2024.10901440 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Flexible Intelligent Metasurfaces for Enhancing MIMO Communications
An, J., Han, Z., Niyato, D., Debbah, M., Yuen, C., & Hanzo, L. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Communications · doi:10.1109/tcomm.2025.3550318 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationEmerging Technologies in Intelligent Metasurfaces: Shaping the Future of Wireless Communications
An, J., Debbah, M., Cui, T. J., Chen, Z. N., & Yuen, C. (2024) · arXiv · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“In [114] and [26], an SIM was utilized to estimate the 2-”
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- Authors
- An, J., Yuen, C., Guan, Y. L., Di Renzo, M., Debbah, M., Poor, H. V., & Hanzo, L.
- Affiliations
- Nanyang Technological University (SG)
- CNRS, Centralexupélec, Laboratoire des Signaux et Systèmes, Université Paris-Saclay,Gif-sur-Yvette,France,91192
- Center for 6G Technology, Khalifa University of Science and Technology,Abu Dhabi,United Arab Emirates
- Princeton University (US)
- University of Southampton (GB)
- Venue
- ICC 2024 - IEEE International Conference on Communications
- Publisher
- IEEE
- Published
- 2024-06-09
- Pages
- 3445-3451
- ISSN
- 1550-3607 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4402159272
- Cited by
- 26
- References
- 1
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 5
- FWCI
- 21.28
- Type
- conference paper
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- arxiv.org
- Locations
- International Conference on Communications (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- Agency for Science, Technology and Research (M22L1b0110)
- Ministry of Education - Singapore (MOE-T2EP50220-0019)
- Ministry of Education, India
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Aerospace Engineering › Advanced Antenna and Metasurface Technologies
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Signal Processing › Direction-of-Arrival Estimation Techniques
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Advanced Wireless Communication Technologies
- Keywords
- stacked intelligent metasurfaces, two-dimensional direction of arrival estimation, two-dimensional discrete Fourier transform, gradient descent, optical computing, receiver array
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