Detecting beta‐amyloid plaque via low rank based orthogonal projection and spatial‐spectrum detector using high‐resolution quantitative susceptibility mapping for preclinical studies

“A threshold, such as 0.7 [60], is often used to determine whether a prediction is considered correct.”

“There are a total of ten distinct detectors used, labeled as QSM-PLAQUE A β N3 NR, QSM-PLAQUE A β N3 NC, QSM-PLAQUE A β N3 ND, QSM-PLAQUE A β N5 NR, QSM-PLAQUE A β N5 NC, QSM-PLAQUE A β N5 ND, QSM-PLAQUE A β N7 NR, QSM-PLAQUE A β N7 NC, QSM-PLAQUE A β N7 ND and nnU-net [61].”

“Specifically, high-resolution QSM maps were loaded in ITK-SNAP [68] with the detection maps (red) as masks and overlaid them to show the detection of A β plaques.”

“Chang et al. [49] have shown the LRaSMD in (1) is performed better than RPCA [53].”

“For object detection task in Simulation DataSet, the YOLOv10 [62], Faster R-CNN [60], and RT-DETR [63], [64] were selected against the QSM-PLAQUE A β N3 NR, which was the best performance in high-resolution QSM Slice experiment.”

“To address the challenge of slowing-decay singular values, both the randomized power iteration algorithm [54] and GoDec [40] operated on ˜ X = ( XX T ) γ X instead of the original input dense data matrix, X .”

“The Reed-Xiaoli Detector (RXD), developed by Reed and Yu, is one of the most widely used classical anomaly detection methods [49], [50].”

“Plasma levels of A β 42 and A β 40, particularly their ratio (A β 42/A β 40), have shown promise as minimally invasive biomarkers for AD [20], [21].”

“After 2010, the analysis of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers, such as A β 42, total tau (t-tau) and phosphorylated tau (p-tau) were well established and recognized as standard for diagnosis for AD [19].”

“Restrictions apply. from the singular values can be analyzed using elbow detection techniques such as curvature-based or second-derivative analysis [69], [70].”

“Quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM) is an advanced MRI technique that reconstructs the spatial distribution of magnetic susceptibility in tissue by processing phase data from gradient echo sequences [26], [27], and it has emerged as a promising method for imaging A β plaques.”

“More recently, various imaging modalities, particularly in MRI encompassing both structural and functional modalities, have revealed characteristic changes in the brains of patients with AD [23].”

“AD is characterized by gradual and progressive nature rather than being an acute illness and is influenced by multiple risk factors such as genetic factors [4], cardiovascular factors [5], cerebrovascular dysfunction [6] etc.”

“…on machine learning, deep learning, threshold methods or their combination using microscopic images [2], PET images [41], or optical images [42], [43], [44] etc. Yoon, et al. [2] proposed segmentation based method to detect A β plaques using microscopic images for deep learning training to find…”

“This downsampling causes the extremely small objects to be lost during the feature extraction process, which is exactly why YOLOv10, Faster R-CNN, and RT-DETR suffered detecting such small targets and achieved lower performance [66].”

“Some strategies can be used for dealing with small object detection shortcomings [67].”

“…such as R (cid:2) 2 or R ∗ 2 , enabling algorithms like APART-QSM [32], χ -separation [33] and DECOMPOSITION-QSM [34] to find the paramagnetic susceptibility, which primarily reflects iron, and a diamagnetic susceptibility, which is associated with substances like myelin or A β plaque [35].”

“In the 2000 s, medical imaging advanced significantly for detection of A β , techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) imaging with amyloid-specific tracers and MRI have shown their potential to non-invasively detect A β plaques [15], [16], [17], [18].”

“For object detection task in Simulation DataSet, the YOLOv10 [62], Faster R-CNN [60], and RT-DETR [63], [64] were selected against the QSM-PLAQUE A β N3 NR, which was the best performance in high-resolution QSM Slice experiment.”

“During the early stage of research on AD, the detection of A β plaques was constrained to histological staining using post-mortem analysis which prevented early diagnosis [10].”

“In the 2000 s, medical imaging advanced significantly for detection of A β , techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) imaging with amyloid-specific tracers and MRI have shown their potential to non-invasively detect A β plaques [15], [16], [17], [18].”

“In the 2000 s, medical imaging advanced significantly for detection of A β , techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) imaging with amyloid-specific tracers and MRI have shown their potential to non-invasively detect A β plaques [15], [16], [17], [18].”

“Since the susceptibility of A β plaques phantom solution has a mean value of − 0.024 ppm with a mean standard deviation of 0.002 ppm [31], our method uses the sparsity can be expressed as the largest number of voxels according to QSM value less than − 0.02 parts per million (ppm).”

“…additional relaxation measurements such as R (cid:2) 2 or R ∗ 2 , enabling algorithms like APART-QSM [32], χ -separation [33] and DECOMPOSITION-QSM [34] to find the paramagnetic susceptibility, which primarily reflects iron, and a diamagnetic susceptibility, which is associated with substances like…”

“Although QSM provides significant information in assessing iron accumulation and other tissue properties at the millimeter scale [27], detecting A β plaques requires spatial resolution at micrometer scale [38].”

“These approaches often combine QSM with additional relaxation measurements such as R (cid:2) 2 or R ∗ 2 , enabling algorithms like APART-QSM [32], χ -separation [33] and DECOMPOSITION-QSM [34] to find the paramagnetic susceptibility, which primarily reflects iron, and a diamagnetic susceptibility,…”

“In the 2000 s, medical imaging advanced significantly for detection of A β , techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) imaging with amyloid-specific tracers and MRI have shown their potential to non-invasively detect A β plaques [15], [16], [17], [18].”

“In particular, QSM provides superior detail about local tissue composition, allowing for the detection of substances such as iron, calcium, and protein aggregates [28], [29].”

“Given the characteristics of QSM MRI, it has emerged as a computational technique of significance for revealing the pathology of AD or other diseases [36], [37].”

“Histological Dataset: Histological examinations of the mice’s brains were conducted as previously described [39], [58].”

“AD is characterized by gradual and progressive nature rather than being an acute illness and is influenced by multiple risk factors such as genetic factors [4], cardiovascular factors [5], cerebrovascular dysfunction [6] etc.”

“D multi gradient echo (MGRE) pulse sequence at 18 μ m isotropic resolution [39], [56].”

“…focus on machine learning, deep learning, threshold methods or their combination using microscopic images [2], PET images [41], or optical images [42], [43], [44] etc. Yoon, et al. [2] proposed segmentation based method to detect A β plaques using microscopic images for deep learning training to…”

“However, although PET imaging and CSF analysis offer safe and accurate diagnosis for AD, PET imaging is unable to detect individual plaques due to its limited spatial resolution [22], and CSF cannot provide any spatial information.”

“This analysis reveals that the majority of plaques are small, with a steep drop-off in frequency as size increases, reflecting the heterogeneity of plaque morphology [57].”

“…QSM acquisition was limited to a 2-echo GRE sequence—insufficient for advanced decomposition—emerging techniques such as DECOMPOSE-QSM [34], χ -separation [33], and QSM-ARCS [71] have demonstrated the feasibility of separating paramagnetic and diamagnetic components, and applications in [72].”

“GoDec [40] is a matrix decomposition algorithm originally developed for robust data recovery and data denoising application [51], [52].”

“Anomaly detection can be considered passive target detection and it does not assume any prior knowledge of signals of interesting is given, and has developed well in Hyperspectral imaging [46], [47], [48], [49].”

“The animals were sacrificed and perfusion-fixed using a 1:10 mixture of ProHance-buffered formalin to shorten T1 and reduce scan time [55].”

“One of the primary hallmarks of AD is the beta-amyloid (A β ) protein, which serves as the main component of plaques and plays a critical role in the disease’s progression [7].”

“In this paper, high-resolution QSM at 18 μ m was acquired to detect A β plaques in 5xFAD mice [39].”

“In particular, QSM provides superior detail about local tissue composition, allowing for the detection of substances such as iron, calcium, and protein aggregates [28], [29].”

“Given the characteristics of QSM MRI, it has emerged as a computational technique of significance for revealing the pathology of AD or other diseases [36], [37].”

“Anomaly detection can be considered passive target detection and it does not assume any prior knowledge of signals of interesting is given, and has developed well in Hyperspectral imaging [46], [47], [48], [49].”