The DOI matches its Crossref record; 15 of the 16 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
What Is Episodic Memory?
Abstract
Few problems In science are as difficult as those of working out the precise relation between two compiex concepts that are deceptively similar. The relation between episodic and semantic memory belongs in this category. Intuition and rational thought reveal many similarities between these two kinds of memory and tempt us to think of the two as one. Yet, closer scrutiny reveals a number of fundamental differences. In this article, I discuss one such difference, namely, the nature of conscious awareness that characterizes retrieval of episodic and semantic information. Not everyone accepts the general idea of multiple memory systems, and among those who do, not everyone accepts the same scheme of classification.^ What follows represents my views on the issue. The distinction between episodic and semantic memory has changed considerably since my 1972 essay In which I argued for the heuristic usefulness of a taxonomic distinction between episodic and semantic memory, conceived of as parallel, partially overlapping information processing systems. At that time, I could think of only five (hypothetical) differences between the two kinds of memory. Some 10 years later, in 1983, ! suggested that, de-
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“as source memories are embedded within episodic memories, they are a characteristic component of episodic memory in humans [99,101,103,104].”
From Is episodic-like memory like episodic memory? (2024) · cites this paper as [104]
In the citing paper
“Spatial and episodic memory processes are inherently related given their specific reliance on the hippocampus (Bird and Burgess, 2008) and the fact that episodic memories are encoded in a spatio-temporal context (Tulving, 1993), making spatial information important in episodic memory formation.”
From Aerobic Exercise as a Tool to Improve Hippocampal Plasticity and Function in Humans: Practical Implications for Mental Health Treatment (2016) · cites this paper as Tulving, 1993
Citations
Cites
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Explaining dissociations between implicit and explicit measures of retention: A processing account
Roediger, H. L., III, Weldon, M. S., & Challis, B. H. (1989) · Cited by 659
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Memory for the temporal order of events in patients with frontal lobe lesions and amnesic patients.
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Neurophysiological Manifestations of Recollective Experience during Recognition Memory Judgments
Smith, M. E. (1993) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.1993.5.1.1 · Cited by 383
A neuropsychological study of fact memory and source amnesia.
Shimamura, A. P., & Squire, L. R. (1987) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.13.3.464 · Cited by 299
Relations between source amnesia and frontal lobe functioning in older adults.
Craik, F. I. M., Morris, L. W., Morris, R. G., & Loewen, E. R. (1990) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.5.1.148 · Cited by 282
Long-lasting perceptual priming and semantic learning in amnesia: A case experiment.
Tulving, E., Hayman, C. A. G., & Macdonald, C. A. (1991) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.17.4.595 · Cited by 273
Self-citationMemory: Performance, knowledge, and experience
Tulving, E. (1989) · The European Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/09541448908403069 · Cited by 181
Self-citationHayman, C. A. G., Macdonald, C. A., & Tulving, E. (1993) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.1993.5.4.375 · Cited by 99
Self-citationEffects of lorazepam upon recollective experience in recognition memory
Curran, H. V., Gardiner, J. M., Java, R. I., & Allen, D. (1993) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/bf02251297 · Cited by 89
Varieties of consciousness and levels of awareness in memory.
Tulving, E. (1993) · Cited by 76
Self-citationActivation and Elaboration Effects in Recognition and Word Priming
Mandler, G., Graf, P., & Kraft, D. (1986) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/14640748608401618 · Cited by 50
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The human hippocampus and spatial and episodic memory
Burgess, N., Maguire, E. A., & O'Keefe, J. (2002) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(02)00830-9 · Cited by 2,401
Belief and feeling: Evidence for an accessibility model of emotional self-report.
Robinson, M. D., & Clore, G. L. (2002) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.6.934 · Cited by 1,806
Two functional components of the hippocampal memory system
Eichenbaum, H., Otto, T., & Cohen, N. J. (1994) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00035391 · Cited by 1,114
Mental time travel and the evolution of the human mind.
Suddendorf, T., & Corballis, M. C. (1997) · PubMed · Cited by 1,035
Category-Specific Cortical Activity Precedes Retrieval During Memory Search
Polyn, S. M., Natu, V. S., Cohen, J. D., & Norman, K. A. (2005) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1117645 · Cited by 690
Metadata
- Authors
- Tulving, E.
- Affiliations
- University of Toronto (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Tulving, Endel
- Venue
- Current Directions in Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 1993-06
- Volume
- 2
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 67-70
- ISSN
- 0963-7214 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8721
- OpenAlex
- W1969929921
- Cited by
- 634
- References
- 16
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 35 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 33 · 2013: 41 · 2012: 32
- FWCI
- 8.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Current Directions in Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Keywords
- episodic memory, semantic memory, conscious awareness, memory retrieval, multiple memory systems, memory classification, parallel information processing, taxonomic distinction
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