The DOI matches its Crossref record; 30 of the 30 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The contagion of mortality: A terror management health model for pandemics
Open accessAbstract
The novel coronavirus, COVID‐19, proliferates as a contagious psychological threat just like the physical disease itself. Due to the growing death toll and constant coverage this pandemic gets, it is likely to activate mortality awareness, to greater or lesser extents, depending on a variety of situational factors. Using terror management theory and the terror management health model, we outline reactions to the pandemic that consist of proximal defences aimed at reducing perceived vulnerability to (as well as denial of) the threat, and distal defences bound by ideological frameworks from which symbolic meaning can be derived. We provide predictions and recommendations for shifting reactions to this pandemic towards behaviours that decrease, rather than increase, the spread of the virus. We conclude by considering the benefits of shifting towards collective mindsets to more effectively combat COVID‐19 and to better prepare for the next inevitable pandemic.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“TMT suggests that death anxiety will increase with the threat source, including that of COVID-19 (Courtney et al., 2020).”
From Understanding terror states of online users in the context of COVID-19: An application of Terror Management Theory (2021) · cites this paper as Courtney et al., 2020
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“However, although various conceptual models and discussions based on TMT have been proposed during the COVID-19 era (e.g. see Courtney et al., 2020), there has been no large-scale test of the applicability of TMT in this context using available data.”
From Understanding terror states of online users in the context of COVID-19: An application of Terror Management Theory (2021) · cites this paper as Courtney et al., 2020
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Winters (2022) also suggested that psychological changes lead to a disruption of one’s physical and mental balance and predisposition to autoimmune diseases, which can have adverse effects on cancer treatment, recovery, and social stability (Grossman et al., 2018; Courtney et al., 2020).”
From Differences in proximal and intimacy-related defense mechanisms among patients with cancer in different psychological stages of dying (2024) · cites this paper as Courtney et al., 2020
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
The Causes and Consequences of a Need for Self-Esteem: A Terror Management Theory
Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., & Solomon, S. (1986) · Public Self and Private Self · doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-9564-5_10 · Cited by 2,326
Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations
Arrindell, W. A. (2003) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(02)00184-5 · Cited by 1,837
Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., Rosenblatt, A., Veeder, M., Kirkland, S., & Lyon, D. (1990) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.58.2.308 · Cited by 1,412 · cited 1×
“For example, individuals reminded of their mortality (compared to a control) identify more with their own nationality (Greenberg et al., 1990) and increase bias towards out-groups (e.g., Castano et al., 2002), but can also be more tolerant if tolerance is culturally valued (Vail, Courtney, & Arndt,…”
BackgroundPyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J., & Solomon, S. (1999) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.106.4.835 · Cited by 1,390
Does culture influence what and how we think? Effects of priming individualism and collectivism.
Oyserman, D., & Lee, S. W. S. (2008) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.311 · Cited by 1,390 · cited 1×
“Prior experimental research has shown that it is possible to prime a sense of collectivism (see Oyserman & Lee, 2008).”
BackgroundRosenblatt, A., Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., Pyszczynski, T., & Lyon, D. (1989) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.57.4.681 · Cited by 1,323
Appealing to fear: A meta-analysis of fear appeal effectiveness and theories
Tannenbaum, M. B., Hepler, J., Zimmerman, R. S., Saul, L., Jacobs, S., Wilson, K., & Albarracín, D. (2015) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0039729 · Cited by 1,315 · cited 1×
“…defences, as defined by the TMHM, mirror behavioural health responses investigated in the context of research on fear appeals (e.g., Hunt & Shehryar, 2011), converging with the TMHM to predict responses to personally relevant, fear-arousing threats (e.g., mortality; see Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
BackgroundTwo Decades of Terror Management Theory: A Meta-Analysis of Mortality Salience Research
Burke, B. L., Martens, A., & Faucher, E. H. (2010) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868309352321 · Cited by 1,188
Taking Stock in Our Progress on Individualism-Collectivism: 100 Years of Solidarity and Community
Earley, P. C., & Gibson, C. B. (1998) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1016/s0149-2063(99)80063-4 · Cited by 616
Thirty Years of Terror Management Theory
Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., & Greenberg, J. (2015) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2015.03.001 · Cited by 509
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- Columbia Global Centers(2020).Conservatism and Authoritarianism in Brazil: Histories Politics and Cultures. Symposium presented at the Ilias and Unicamp Conference Columbia University New York City USA.
- Hofstede G., 2010, Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. Revised and expanded
- McCoy T., 2020, Brazil President Bolsonaro dismisses coronavirus response for ‘a little cold’, The Washington Post
- Rogers K., 2020, Trump defends using ‘Chinese Virus’ label, ignoring growing criticism
- Sole J. W.(2007).Terror management and pandemic influenza: Social perception and response[Unpublished Master’s thesis].Lakehead University.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–124 of 124
Decisions Involving Tradeoffs Between Health and Economic Losses During the COVID-19 PandemicPreprint
Sokołowska, J., & Świątnicki, K. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4001119
SIKAP PELAJAR KAWRUH JIWA MENGHADAPI PANDEMI COVID-19
Sunarno, Ashar, A. B., & Azizah, L. Z. (2022) · Happiness Journal of Psychology and Islamic Science · doi:10.30762/happiness.v4i2.371
Harlak, H., Elmas, P., Eyiol, G., Mert, S., & Öner, Ş. (2022) · Nesne Psikoloji Dergisi · doi:10.7816/nesne-10-25-03
Mediacyjna rola zachowań zdrowotnych w relacji między cechami osobowości i dobrostanem psychicznym
Buczek, P., & Tomaszek, K. (2022) · Psychologia Rozwojowa · doi:10.4467/20843879pr.21.026.15482 · Cited by 2
Understanding work well-being during COVID-19 pandemic : A study in expatriates and non-expatriates
Biswas, T. (2022) · Personalmanagement und Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie · doi:10.20378/irb-55775
Emotion-based communication: the specifics of fear and hope tactics
Juozėnaitė, E. (2023) · Socialiniai tyrimai · doi:10.15388/soctyr.2022.46.1.6
Risk Perceptions, Health Attitudes, and Individual Differences During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Linden, M., Sears, A., & Foust, M. S. (2023) · Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research · doi:10.24839/2325-7342.jn28.3.219
“This may be due to the increased participa tion in activities that strengthen one’s worldviews when confronted by threats that raise awareness of one’s own mortality, such as the threat posed by the COVID19 virus (Courtney et al., 2020; Goldenberg & Arndt, 2008).”
Şahan, E. (2023) · Ege Tıp Dergisi · doi:10.19161/etd.1360363
Captari, L. E. (2023) · Religion, spirituality and health: a social scientific approach · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-39582-6_8
Logotherapy: Learnings from the Past and Relevance in the COVID-19 Pandemic
Malik, L., & Khurana, H. (2023) · Annals of Indian Psychiatry · doi:10.4103/aip.aip_156_22
Buckley, T., & Carr, P. (2024) · Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/casp.2780
How Does Self-esteem Alleviate Death Anxiety in Youth Populations? The Mediating Role of SecurityPreprint
Yu, J., Hu, Z., Liang, Y., Peng, H., Li, N., & Liu, H. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4735152/v1
Existential Approaches to Vaccine Hesitancy: Terror Management Theory
Harvell-Bowman, L. A. (2024) · Risk, systems and decisions · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-74062-6_12
Gheshlaghi, M. Z., Salehi, M., & Roshan, M. J. (2025) · Practice in Clinical Psychology · doi:10.32598/jpcp.13.1.908.2
Colyer, V., & Kewley, S. (2025) · Journal of Victimology and Victim Justice · doi:10.1177/25166069241306545 · Cited by 1
Wang, Y. F., Zhang, X., & Zhong, Y. (2025) · International Journal of Intercultural Relations · doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2025.102150
Illness perceptions, fear, and COVID-19 protective behaviours: the mediating role of health literacy
Zouli, E., Koulierakis, G., & Tsikouraki, A. (2025) · Global Health Promotion · doi:10.1177/17579759251342822
Perach, R., Kostyuk, E., Husbands, D., & Bondaronek, P. (2025) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2025.2571596 · Cited by 1
“Theoretical models derived from TMT that focus on the management of health threats are instructive in the field of health communication (Harvell-Bowman, 2023); namely, the Terror Management Health Model (Arndt & goldenberg, 2017; goldenberg & Arndt, 2008) and the Terror Management Health Model for Pandemics (Courtney…”
InfluentialScapegoating Jews During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Cohen, J. E. (2023) · Journal of Religion & Society · doi:10.64667/istm9747
“This environment may heighten mortality anxiety (Pyszczynski et al. 2021; Barnes 2021; Courtney, Goldenberg, and Boyd 2020).”
Schweizer, T. K., Mauduy, M., Falomir-Pichastor, J. M., & Margas, N. (2026) · Journal of Teaching in Physical Education · doi:10.1123/jtpe.2025-0058
Lin, Y., Liu, Y., Cao, J., Pang, Z., Song, X., & Dang, F. (2026) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2026.1818464
“First, psychologically, this can be interpreted through Terror Management Theory (TMT) which suggests that mortality salience caused by the pandemic plays a central role in driving the attitudes and behaviors of most of the population in each country plagued by the virus (7, − 9).”
Purpose in Life Renewal for COVID-19 Survivors: A Feasibility Study
Wagener, S. G., Radomski, M. V., Castro‐Pearson, S., Anheluk, M., Carroll, G. L., Grabe, K., Kath, K., Kocian, A., Lindenfelser, L., Rademacher, J., et al. (2026) · OTJR Occupational Therapy Journal of Research · doi:10.1177/15394492261464079
Pelletier, C., Proulx, É., Foisy, L.-O. M., Drouin, J., Cadieux, H., & Dufresne, Y. (2026) · Mental Health Religion & Culture · doi:10.1080/13674676.2025.2576779
“In 2019 and 2020, the rapid spread of COVID-19 triggered a global health crisis that heightened the salience of mortality world-wide (Bottemanne et al., 2020; Courtney et al., 2020).”
Young Adults’ Conspiracy Beliefs, Fear, and Preventive Behaviors During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Diaconu‐Gherasim, L. R., Zancu, S. A., & Brumariu, L. E. (2026) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941261501019
Metadata
- Authors
- Courtney, E. P., Goldenberg, J. L., & Boyd, P.
- Affiliations
- University of South Florida (US)
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Corresponding author
- Courtney, Emily P.
- Venue
- British Journal of Social Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2020-06-17
- Volume
- 59
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 607-617
- ISSN
- 0144-6665 (ISSN-L)
- 2044-8309
- PMC
- PMC7323320
- OpenAlex
- W3035864377
- Cited by
- 124
- References
- 29
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 39 · 2020: 8
- FWCI
- 26.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- British Journal of Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
- National Institutes of Health
- National Cancer Institute
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- terror management theory, COVID-19 pandemic, death awareness, psychological threat, ideological frameworks, symbolic meaning, collective mindset, pandemic preparedness, public health behavior
- MeSH terms
- Betacoronavirus, COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Defense Mechanisms, Denial, Psychological, Fear, Health Promotion, Humans, Pneumonia, Viral, Self Concept, Coronavirus Infections, Risk Reduction Behavior, Health Communication, Pandemics
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
