Appealing to fear: A meta-analysis of fear appeal effectiveness and theories
Open accessAbstract
Fear appeals are a polarizing issue, with proponents confident in their efficacy and opponents confident that they backfire. We present the results of a comprehensive meta-analysis investigating fear appeals' effectiveness for influencing attitudes, intentions, and behaviors. We tested predictions from a large number of theories, the majority of which have never been tested meta-analytically until now. Studies were included if they contained a treatment group exposed to a fear appeal, a valid comparison group, a manipulation of depicted fear, a measure of attitudes, intentions, or behaviors concerning the targeted risk or recommended solution, and adequate statistics to calculate effect sizes. The meta-analysis included 127 articles (9% unpublished) yielding 248 independent samples (NTotal = 27,372) collected from diverse populations. Results showed a positive effect of fear appeals on attitudes, intentions, and behaviors, with the average effect on a composite index being random-effects d = 0.29. Moderation analyses based on prominent fear appeal theories showed that the effectiveness of fear appeals increased when the message included efficacy statements, depicted high susceptibility and severity, recommended one-time only (vs. repeated) behaviors, and targeted audiences that included a larger percentage of female message recipients. Overall, we conclude that (a) fear appeals are effective at positively influencing attitude, intentions, and behaviors; (b) there are very few circumstances under which they are not effective; and (c) there are no identified circumstances under which they backfire and lead to undesirable outcomes.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
1 of 24 cited sources checked · 1 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingown data
Analyses conducted separately for attitude, intention, and behavior measures produced results consistent with those from the combined measure.
“these results are presented in Appendix A and are consistent with the results based on the combined measure.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The average weighted effect size for treatment versus comparison groups was d = 0.29, with a 95% confidence interval of [0.22, 0.35].
“The average weighted effect size comparing outcomes for treatment to comparison groups was d = 0.29 with a 95% CI of [0.22, 0.35].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Fear appeals were more effective when they included efficacy statements (95% CI [0.31, 0.55]) than when they did not (95% CI [0.13, 0.29]).
“The results support this hypothesis: Fear appeals were more effective when they included efficacy statements (95% CI: [0.31, 0.55]) than when they did not (95% CI: [0.13, 0.29]).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Fear appeal effectiveness is higher when the audience contains a larger proportion of female recipients.
“Moderation analyses based on prominent fear appeal theories showed that the effectiveness of fear appeals increased when the message included efficacy statements, depicted high susceptibility and severity, recommended one-time only (vs. repeated) behaviors, and targeted audiences that included a larger percentage of female message recipients.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Fear appeal effectiveness is higher when the message recommends a one-time behavior rather than a repeated behavior.
“Moderation analyses based on prominent fear appeal theories showed that the effectiveness of fear appeals increased when the message included efficacy statements, depicted high susceptibility and severity, recommended one-time only (vs. repeated) behaviors, and targeted audiences that included a larger percentage of female message recipients.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data
The current meta-analysis used a much larger database than earlier meta-analyses.
“Further, the current meta-analysis used a substantially larger meta-analytic database than prior analyses, thus providing us with more precision to test relevant hypotheses.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Fear appeal effectiveness is higher when the message depicts high susceptibility and severity.
“Moderation analyses based on prominent fear appeal theories showed that the effectiveness of fear appeals increased when the message included efficacy statements, depicted high susceptibility and severity, recommended one-time only (vs. repeated) behaviors, and targeted audiences that included a larger percentage of female message recipients.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In the full database of 248 samples, 21 samples contained more than two experimental groups exposed to different levels of depicted fear.
“In the entire database (k = 248), 21 samples included more than two experimental groups exposed to varying levels of depicted fear.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Fear appeal effectiveness is higher when the message contains efficacy statements.
“Moderation analyses based on prominent fear appeal theories showed that the effectiveness of fear appeals increased when the message included efficacy statements, depicted high susceptibility and severity, recommended one-time only (vs. repeated) behaviors, and targeted audiences that included a larger percentage of female message recipients.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Significant heterogeneity was present among effect sizes, Q(247) = 1,287, I2 = 85.11, p < .0001.
“There was also significant heterogeneity among effect sizes Q(247) = 1,287, I2 = 85.11, p < .0001.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Audiences in the early stages (95% CI [0.21, 0.40]) and late stages (95% CI [0.14, 0.54]) were equally impacted by fear appeals.
“Neither hypothesis was supported by the data because audiences in the early stages (95% CI: [0.21, 0.40]) and late stages (95% CI: [0.14, 0.54]) were equally impacted by fear appeals.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Fear appeals were more effective when they stressed susceptibility and severity related to the concerns being addressed.
“Specifically, we found that fear appeals were more effective when the message depicted relatively high amounts of fear, included an efficacy message, and stressed susceptibility and severity related to the concerns being addressed (i.e., factors concerning the message).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Fear appeals recommending one-time behaviors (95% CI [0.30, 0.56]) were more effective than fear appeals recommending repeated behaviors (95% CI [0.14, 0.29]).
“The results supported this hypothesis, such that fear appeals recommending one-time behaviors (95% CI: [0.30, 0.56]) were more effective than fear appeals recommending repeated behaviors (95% CI: [0.14, 0.29]).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Most empirical studies did not detail source information in a manner that allowed testing such hypotheses.
“However, most empirical studies did not detail source information in a manner that allowed us to test such hypotheses.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Even when a moderator was unrelated to fear appeal effectiveness, fear appeals were still more effective than comparison treatments.
“Even when a moderator was unrelated to fear appeal effectiveness, fear appeals were still more effective than comparison treatments.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The present meta-analysis found that fear appeals were successful at influencing attitudes, intentions, and behaviors across nearly all conditions that were analyzed.
“The present meta-analysis found that fear appeals were successful at influencing attitudes, intentions, and behaviors across nearly all conditions that were analyzed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Fear appeals were equally effective in studies conducted in collectivist countries (95% CI [0.27, 0.66]) and individualist countries (95% CI [0.19, 0.33]).
“The results did not support this hypothesis. Fear appeals were equally effective in studies conducted in collectivist countries (95% CI: [0.27, 0.66]) and individualist countries (95% CI: [0.19, 0.33]).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Fear appeals recommending detection behaviors (95% CI [0.21, 0.49]) and prevention/promotion behaviors (95% CI [0.20, 0.38]) were equally effective.
“The results did not support this hypothesis, as fear appeals recommending detection behaviors (95% CI: [0.21, 0.49]) and prevention/promotion behaviors (95% CI: [0.20, 0.38]) were equally effective.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Meta-regression using percent of the sample that was female as a predictor of effect size produced a small but significant effect, b = 0.0031 (SE = 0.0012, 95% CI [0.0007, 0.0055]), p < .0001.
“This analysis produced a small but significant effect, b = 0.0031 (SE = 0.0012, 95% CI for the slope: [0.0007, 0.0055]), p < .0001.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Fear appeals were more effective when the message depicted relatively high amounts of fear.
“Specifically, we found that fear appeals were more effective when the message depicted relatively high amounts of fear, included an efficacy message, and stressed susceptibility and severity related to the concerns being addressed (i.e., factors concerning the message).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For every 10% increase in the percent of the sample that is female, fear appeal effectiveness increases by approximately d = 0.03.
“Therefore, for every 10% increase in the percent of the sample that is female, fear appeal effectiveness increases by approximately d = 0.03.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The 95% CI for the focal outcome (average of attitude, intention, and behavior outcomes) was [0.28, 0.50].
“Further, the 95% CI for the focal outcome in our meta-analysis (the average of attitude, intention, and behavior outcomes) also supported this result: [0.28, 0.50].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
There was not one level of any moderator tested for which fear appeals backfired to produce worse outcomes relative to comparison groups.
“Further, there was not one level of any moderator that we tested for which fear appeals backfired to produce worse outcomes relative to the comparison groups.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The manipulation check estimate reflects how much fear was induced by the specific messages in this sample, not a general estimate of fear induction by fear appeals.
“Importantly, this result should be taken as an estimate of how much fear was induced by the particular messages used in this sample, rather than an estimate of how much fear is induced by fear appeal messages in general.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisenone given
Existing fear appeal theories have concentrated on message content, recommended behavior, or audience characteristics.
“Existing theories about fear appeals have focused on either the content of the message, the nature of the behavior recommended by the communication, or the characteristics of the audience receiving the message.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisereasoning
Earlier tests of the linear and curvilinear models used studies with only two levels of depicted fear, which makes levels hard to equate across studies.
“One drawback to prior investigations of the linear and curvilinear models is that the analyses included comparisons from studies that used two levels of depicted fear, even though it is difficult to equate levels of depicted fear across different studies”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The result suggests that depicted fear may have a maximum effective value, beyond which depicting additional fear has no impact.
“Instead of supporting either the linear or curvilinear hypothesis, this result suggests that depicted fear may have a maximum effective value, beyond which there is no impact of depicting additional fear.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisenone given
Every earlier meta-analysis tested only theories about the message component of the framework.
“Specifically, each prior meta-analysis has only tested theories relevant to the message portion of our framework, and thus was only able to address a limited set of questions pertaining to fear appeal effectiveness”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Premisenone given
Those prior meta-analyses of efficacy statements used less comprehensive databases.
“However, those studies were conducted using less comprehensive meta-analytic databases, and thus the current synthesis can provide a more thorough assessment of the strong and weak hypotheses.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Three prior meta-analyses found support for the weak efficacy-statement hypothesis.
“Three meta-analyses have tested whether the inclusion of efficacy statements in fear appeals leads to increased effectiveness, and all found support for the weak hypothesis (de Hoog et al., 2007; Mongeau, 1998; Witte & Allen, 2000).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites de Hoog et al., 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Mongeau, 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Witte & Allen, 2000 source
- Interpretationown data
No circumstances were identified in which fear appeals backfire and cause undesirable outcomes.
“Overall, we conclude that (a) fear appeals are effective at positively influencing attitude, intentions, and behaviors, (b) there are very few circumstances under which they are not effective, and (c) there are no identified circumstances under which they backfire and lead to undesirable outcomes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
The analysis comparing moderate versus high depicted fear was based on only 21 samples.
“One caveat is that this analysis was only based on 21 samples.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Only a small number of circumstances exist in which fear appeals fail to be effective.
“Overall, we conclude that (a) fear appeals are effective at positively influencing attitude, intentions, and behaviors, (b) there are very few circumstances under which they are not effective, and (c) there are no identified circumstances under which they backfire and lead to undesirable outcomes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Prior research has established that composite measures combining attitudes, intentions, and behaviors are a valid outcome for studying the relative persuasiveness of messages.
“prior research has demonstrated that composite measures combining attitudes, intentions, and behaviors are a valid outcome of interest when investigating the relative persuasiveness of messages (O’Keefe, 2013).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites O’Keefe, 2013 source
- Interpretationreasoning
Such miscodings would likely attenuate potential differences across conditions.
“Overall, it is likely that such miscodings would attenuate potential differences across conditions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
All comparisons between treatment and comparison groups must be interpreted as effects of exposure to depicted levels of fear rather than effects of fear per se.
“Consequently, all comparisons between the treatment and comparison groups must be interpreted as effects of exposure to depicted levels of fear rather than effects of fear per se.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Fear appeals are more effective for audiences with a larger percentage of female message recipients than male message recipients.
“Thus, the hypothesis was supported: Fear appeals are more effective for audiences with a larger percentage of female message recipients than male message recipients.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
The authors formed their conclusions by meta-analytically testing a wide variety of influential fear appeal theories using the largest and most comprehensive fear appeals database to date.
“We formed these conclusions by meta-analytically testing a wide variety of influential fear appeal theories using the largest and most comprehensive fear appeals database to date.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
The results partially replicated a previous meta-analytic finding in which high depicted severity influenced all three outcome measures.
“Although this hypothesis was not supported, our results partially replicated a previous meta-analytic finding in which high depicted severity influenced all three outcome measures (de Hoog et al., 2007).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites de Hoog et al., 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
According to Robertson's (1975) single action theory, fear appeals that attempt to persuade people about one-time behaviors should be more effective than fear appeals that attempt to persuade people about repeated behaviors.
“According to Robertson’s (1975) single action theory, fear appeals that attempt to persuade people about one-time behaviors (e.g., getting vaccinated) should be more effective than fear appeals that attempt to persuade people about repeated behaviors (e.g., exercising multiple times per week every week).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Robertson (1975) source
- Interpretationown data
Neither self-esteem hypothesis derived from TMT was supported.
“Thus, neither self-esteem hypotheses derived from TMT was supported.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The death and delay hypothesis was not supported.
“Therefore, the death and delay hypothesis was not supported.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
These results confirm the conclusions of prior meta-analyses concerning the use of efficacy statements.
“These results confirm the conclusions of prior meta-analyses concerning the use of efficacy statements (de Hoog et al., 2007; Peters et al., 2012; Witte & Allen, 2000).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites de Hoog et al., 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Peters et al., 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Witte & Allen, 2000 source
- Study design and conductown data
The majority of samples included no assessment of subjective fear (k = 177, 71% of samples).
“although we were able to determine that the treatment groups generally experienced more subjective fear than the comparison groups by analyzing fear-related manipulation check questions, the majority of samples included no assessment of subjective fear (k = 177, which is 71% of samples in our database).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The bias toward message content is not due to a lack of interesting or potentially important effects concerning behavior or audience, as significant effects emerged for each.
“However, this bias is clearly not due to a lack of interesting or potentially important effects concerning the behavior or audience, as significant effects emerged pertaining to each.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductreasoning
The lack of subjective fear measures makes it difficult to equate fear appeal intensity across studies.
“Second, the lack of subjective fear measures makes it difficult (if not impossible) to equate fear appeal intensity across studies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductnone given
The meta-analysis exclusively included experimental studies.
“Third, our meta-analysis exclusively included experimental studies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 25
- May combine two claims. 43
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationBased on a well-established body of literature in persuasion, aspects of a message's source can influence the persuasiveness of the message.
“based on a well-established body of literature in persuasion demonstrating that aspects of a message’s source can influence the persuasiveness of the message (Briñol & Petty, 2009; Kumkale et al., 2010; Pornpitakpan, 2004; Wilson & Sherrell, 1993), the source of a fear appeal communication should be an important moderator for fear appeal effectiveness.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataNone of the methodological factors moderated fear appeal effectiveness, as the 95% confidence intervals for all levels of all factors overlapped.
“As can be seen in Table 4, none of these methodological factors moderated fear appeal effectiveness – within each factor, 95% CIs for each factor level overlap for all levels of all factors.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataMost samples (k = 170) included only one type of dependent measure, while some included two types (k = 61) or all three (k = 17).
“The majority of samples (k = 170) included only one type of dependent measure (attitudes, intentions, or behaviors), but some samples included two types (k = 61) or all three (k = 17).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataAcross 71 samples with manipulation checks, fear appeals successfully induced experienced fear, with treatment groups reporting more fear than comparison groups, d = 1.00, 95% CI [0.83, 1.18], Q(70) = 697, I2 = 90.67, p < .0001.
“Based on the 71 samples that included such manipulation checks, fear appeals were generally successful at inducing experienced fear, such that treatment groups reported more fear than comparison groups, d = 1.00 (95% CI: [0.83, 1.18]), Q(70) = 697, I2 = 90.67, p < .0001.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe meta-analysis included 127 reports out of 430 considered, yielding 248 statistically independent samples with a combined total of 27,372 participants in treatment and comparison groups.
“Of the 430 reports considered for inclusion in this meta-analysis, 127 met our inclusion criteria (9% unpublished), providing 248 statistically independent samples with a total N of 27,372 participants in the treatment and comparison groups combined.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The 248 samples included in the meta-analysis are statistically independent.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe moderate depicted fear groups had a total of 1,626 participants and were excluded from other analyses.
“The moderate depicted fear groups (total N = 1,626) were not included in other analyses”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataMany fear appeals mention death; 89 of the 248 studies in the meta-analysis did so.
“Many fear appeals explicitly mention death (89 of the 248 studies in our meta-analysis)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataFear appeals produce a positive average effect on attitudes, intentions, and behaviors, with a random-effects composite effect size of d = 0.29.
“Results showed a positive effect of fear appeals on attitudes, intentions, and behaviors, with the average effect on a composite index being random-effects d¯ = 0.29.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“Overall, we conclude that (a) fear appeals are effective at positively influencing attitude, intentions, and behaviors”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe meta-analysis drew on 127 papers, 9% unpublished, 248 independent samples, and 27,372 total participants from diverse populations.
“The meta-analysis included 127 papers (9% unpublished) yielding 248 independent samples (NTotal = 27,372) collected from diverse populations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn the meta-analysis, the average weighted effect size comparing groups exposed to moderate versus high depicted fear was d = −0.05 (95% CI [−0.34, 0.24]), which was not statistically significant.
“The combined effect size was d = −0.05 with a 95% CI of [−0.34, 0.24] and Q(20) = 154 (I2 = 92.89, p < .0001).”
- Also stated in: § Tests of message content hypotheses · plain
“Therefore, outcomes did not differ for groups exposed to moderate versus high depicted fear.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Also stated in: § Tests of message content hypotheses · plain
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe composite measure combining attitudes, intentions, and behaviors had a Cronbach's alpha of .87, indicating high internal consistency.
“Cronbach’s alpha for the composite measure was .87, indicating that the three types of measures are highly internally consistent.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe number of samples with multiple measures of the same outcome type was 18 for attitudes, 24 for intentions, and 12 for behaviors.
“the number of samples with multiple attitude, intention, and behavior measures was respectively k = 18, k = 24, and k = 12”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataSeparate meta-regressions found no relationship between fear appeal effectiveness and publication year (b = −0.0029, p = .18), average age of sample (b = −0.0046, p = .23), or sample size (b = 0.0000, p = .91).
“Separate meta-regressions for each of these three variables revealed that none were related to fear appeal effectiveness: b = −0.0029 (SE = 0.0022, p = .18, 95% CI: [−0.0072, 0.0013]), b = −0.0046 (SE = 0.0039, p = .23, 95% CI: [−0.0122, 0.0030]), and b = 0.0000 (SE = 0.0002, p = .91, 95% CI: [−0.0003, 0.0003]), respectively for publication year, average age of sample, and sample size.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataFear appeals were effective for both one-time and repeated recommended behaviors, but more effective for one-time behaviors.
“However, it is worth noting that fear appeals were effective for both types of recommended behaviors, and they were simply more effective for one-time behaviors.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataFear appeals were equally effective when they mentioned death and recommended a self-esteem hindering behavior (95% CI [−0.41, 0.18]), did not mention death and recommended a self-esteem hindering behavior (95% CI [0.00, 0.96]), mentioned death and recommended a self-esteem enhancing behavior (95% CI [0.11, 0.67]), or did not mention death and recommended a self-esteem enhancing behavior (95% CI [
“The results did not support these predictions, as fear appeals were equally effective when they mentioned death and recommended a self-esteem hindering behavior (95% CI: [−0.41, 0.18]), did not mention death and recommended a self-esteem hindering behavior (95% CI: [0.00, 0.96]), mentioned death and recommended a self-esteem enhancing behavior (95% CI: [0.11, 0.67]), or did not mention death and”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataFear appeals high on both depicted severity and depicted susceptibility had positive effects for attitudes (95% CI [0.05, 0.38]), intentions (95% CI [0.23, 0.47]), and behaviors (95% CI [0.24, 0.63]).
“The 95% CIs confirmed this prediction and indicated that fear appeals high on both moderators had positive effects for attitudes (95% CI: [0.05, 0.38]), intentions (95% CI: [0.23, 0.47]), and behaviors (95% CI: [0.24, 0.63]).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataWhen fear appeals mentioned death, they were equally effective for outcomes that occurred the same day (95% CI [0.04, 0.27]), between one and fourteen days after exposure (95% CI [0.21, 1.37]), or more than fourteen days later (95% CI [0.19, 0.51]).
“When fear appeals mentioned death, they were equally effective for outcomes that occurred the same day (95% CI: [0.04, 0.27]), between one and fourteen days after fear appeal exposure (95% CI: [0.21, 1.37]), or more than fourteen days later (95% CI: [0.19, 0.51]).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
FindingreasoningThe paucity of existing research addressing source characteristics and subjective experience led the authors to not include these as aspects of the current review framework.
“The paucity of existing research addressing source characteristics and subjective experience led us to not include these as aspects of the current review framework, but they would be welcome additions in the future.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
FindingreasoningOrganizing the existing literature under the framework highlights the relative dearth of research addressing behavior and audience aspects relative to the message aspect.
“As mentioned, organizing the existing literature under this framework highlights the relative dearth of research addressing the behavior and audience aspects of the model relative to the message aspect.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Findingnone givenMost empirical studies do not measure participants' subjective states.
“Although most empirical studies simply do not measure participants’ subjective states, such measures could be very informative to test a variety of interesting questions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataWhen fear appeals did not mention death, they were equally effective for outcomes that occurred the same day (95% CI [0.25, 0.44]), between one and fourteen days after exposure (95% CI [−0.29, 0.33]), or more than fourteen days later (95% CI [0.03, 0.88]).
“Similarly, when fear appeals did not mention death, they were equally effective for outcomes that occurred the same day (95% CI: [0.25, 0.44]), between one and fourteen days after fear appeal exposure (95% CI: [−0.29, 0.33]), or more than fourteen days later (95% CI: [0.03, 0.88]).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataFear appeals that were only high in depicted susceptibility had positive effects for intentions (95% CI [0.15, 0.59]) and behaviors (95% CI [0.01, 0.88]) but not attitudes (95% CI [−0.51, 1.47]).
“The 95% CIs indicated that fear appeals that were only high in depicted susceptibility had positive effects for intentions (95% CI: [0.15, 0.59]) and behaviors (95% CI: [0.01, 0.88]) but not attitudes (95% CI: [−0.51, 1.47]).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Findingnone givenA number of the hypotheses that were substantiated are relatively agnostic concerning mechanisms.
“A number of the hypotheses that we substantiated are relatively agnostic concerning mechanisms, and this is a serious gap in the current fear appeal literature.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataMany fear appeals are delivered as public service announcements, so there is relatively little variation across existing studies on this dimension.
“Further, many fear appeals are delivered in the form of public service announcements, and thus there is relatively little variation across existing studies on this dimension.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataFear appeals that were only high in depicted severity had positive effects for attitudes (95% CI [0.06, 0.37]) and intentions (95% CI [0.20, 0.39]) but not behaviors (95% CI [−0.08, 0.42]).
“The 95% CIs indicated that fear appeals that were only high in depicted severity had positive effects for attitudes (95% CI: [0.06, 0.37]) and intentions (95% CI: [0.20, 0.39]) but not behaviors (95% CI: [−0.08, 0.42])”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingnone givenPrior research on fear appeals has strongly focused on the message's content, and prior meta-analyses all addressed message content while overlooking recommended behavior and audience.
“Specifically, the bulk of prior research on fear appeals has investigated questions about the message’s content – indeed, of the prior meta-analyses on fear appeals, all of them addressed questions related to the message’s content while overlooking questions related to the recommended behavior and audience.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataModerated meta-regressions for all moderator variables produced results identical to the 95% confidence interval analyses.
“We also conducted moderated meta-regressions to analyze all moderator variables; the results were the same as the 95% CI analyses and are thus not presented here.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataRandom-effects and fixed-effects analyses yielded comparable results, and the random-effects results are reported.
“We conducted all analyses using random- and fixed-effects analyses. As both types of analyses produced comparable results, we present the random-effects analyses.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductnone givenWhen multiple comparison groups existed, the highest depicted fear condition was compared with the lowest, prioritizing no-message, neutral-message, then low-fear groups.
“When a study included more than one potential comparison groups, we opted to compare the highest depicted fear condition with the lowest depicted fear condition, prioritizing them in the following order: No message comparison group, neutral message comparison group, and low depicted fear comparison group.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoningThe coding scheme for stage of change was designed to be conservative, aiming to include the maximum number of reports while avoiding misclassifications.
“As most studies did not specifically measure this variable, we designed a conservative coding scheme to ensure we could include the maximum number of reports in this analysis while avoiding misclassifications.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoningTo ensure the test concerned high versus moderate depicted fear, only studies with at least three levels of depicted fear were included.
“Specifically, to ensure that the test concerned high depicted fear versus moderate depicted fear, we only included studies with at least three levels of depicted fear.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisereasoningThe present research is the first meta-analytic test of nine of the 16 hypotheses and the first meta-analytic test of any behavior- or audience-related hypotheses.
“Thus, the present research represents the first meta-analytic test for nine of the 16 hypotheses and the first meta-analytic test for any hypotheses related to the behavior and audience aspects of our framework.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisenone givenOf the 16 fear appeal hypotheses discussed, only seven had been tested in prior meta-analyses, all within the message aspect of the framework.
“Of the 16 fear appeal hypotheses discussed, only seven have been tested in prior meta-analyses, and all of them fall under the message aspect of our framework (Table 1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataFor practitioners, once a message depicts moderate fear, there is no value in depicting additional fear, but depicting additional fear will not lead to negative effects.
“This finding may have implications for practitioners using fear appeals - i.e., once a message depicts moderate fear, there is no value in depicting additional fear, but depicting additional fear will not lead to negative effects.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoningIncluded studies measured attitudes, intentions, or behaviors in both treatment and comparison groups.
“Studies were included if they measured one or more of the following variables as an outcome in both the treatment and comparison groups: Attitudes, intentions, or behaviors.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationA previous meta-analysis found that messages high in depicted susceptibility improved intentions and behaviors but not attitudes.
“whereas messages with high depicted susceptibility positively influenced intentions and behaviors but not attitudes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites de Hoog et al., 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataFear appeals have a significant positive effect on outcomes, with treatment groups showing attitudes, intentions, and behaviors more aligned with the advocated position than comparison groups.
“Therefore, fear appeals have a significant and positive effect on outcomes. That is, relative to participants in comparison groups, participants in treatment groups (i.e., those exposed to relatively high levels of depicted fear) had attitudes, intentions, and behaviors that were more in line with the position advocated by the fear appeal.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataTo the authors' knowledge, this is the largest and most valid test of the linear and curvilinear hypotheses to date.
“However, to our knowledge, this is the largest and most valid test of the linear and curvilinear hypotheses to date.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataBegg and Mazumdar's rank correlation test yielded r = −.02, p = .67, providing no evidence of retrieval or inclusion bias.
“The rank correlation was r = −.02, p = .67. Thus, there is no evidence of retrieval or inclusion bias.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Begg & Mazumdar, 1994 source
May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.
Study design and conductown dataThe funnel plot showed a symmetric distribution of effect sizes with smaller variability toward the top, indicating no retrieval or inclusion bias.
“As can be seen in the figure, the distribution appears quite symmetric with smaller variability toward the top of the plot.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe results support the weak efficacy hypothesis and disconfirm the strong efficacy hypothesis; fear appeals are effective with or without efficacy statements, but inclusion of efficacy statements is associated with increased effectiveness.
“The results clearly support the weak efficacy hypothesis and disconfirm the strong efficacy hypothesis. Thus, fear appeals are effective with or without efficacy statements, but the inclusion of efficacy statements is associated with increased effectiveness.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationExisting data have consistently supported the linear model of fear appeals but not the curvilinear model.
“The linear and curvilinear models have been tested in prior meta-analyses, and the linear model has consistently been supported by existing data, whereas the curvilinear model has not (e.g., Witte & Allen, 2000).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Witte & Allen, 2000 source
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoningCoding messages as non-death unless the word death was explicitly mentioned allowed for a more stringent test of terror management theory hypotheses and avoided confounding death messages with more severe topics.
“This decision allowed for a more stringent test of TMT hypotheses, and provided an even distribution of death versus non-death conditions, which avoids the potential confound of death messages always being about more severe topics than non-death messages.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoningIncluded studies had an experimental design with a fear-appeal treatment group and a comparison group.
“Studies were included if they contained an experimental research design in which a treatment group was exposed to a message designed to induce fear (i.e., a fear appeal).Studies were included if they contained a comparison group.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationA previous meta-analysis found that messages high in depicted severity improved attitudes, intentions, and behaviors.
“Specifically, messages with high depicted severity positively influenced attitudes, intentions, and behaviors”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites de Hoog et al., 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningThe reported effects represent relatively high depicted fear messages compared with relatively lower depicted fear conditions, including no fear.
“Overall, all results should be interpreted as the effect of exposure to messages designed to depict relatively high levels of fear compared to conditions designed to depict relatively lower levels of fear (including no fear).5”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataThe normal quantile plot showed effect sizes following a straight line and generally falling within the 95% confidence interval of the normality line, indicating no evidence of retrieval or inclusion bias.
“As can be seen from Figure 3, the effect sizes followed a straight line and generally fell within the 95% confidence interval of the normality line, and thus there is no evidence of retrieval or inclusion bias.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Wang & Bushman, 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoningIncluded studies provided adequate statistics to calculate effect sizes.
“Studies were excluded if they did not contain appropriate statistics (e.g., F ratios, means and standard deviations, frequencies, or exact p values) for calculating an effect size representing the difference of outcomes for treatment versus comparison groups.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataThe distribution of effect sizes appeared roughly continuous and normal, indicating a lack of inclusion bias.
“Further, the distribution of effect sizes appears to be roughly continuous and normal, which indicates a lack of inclusion bias.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationPrior meta-analyses of fear appeals have reported positive effects on some outcomes, null effects, and negative effects.
“Although some meta-analytic examinations have found positive effects of fear appeals on some outcomes (Witte & Allen, 2000), others have found null effects (de Hoog et al., 2007) or even negative effects (Peters et al., 2012).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Witte & Allen, 2000 source
- cites de Hoog et al., 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Peters et al., 2012
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataIntercoder reliability was good, with categorical variables averaging κ = .93 and continuous variables averaging r = .92.
“Agreement for all variables was good: Categorical variables had average κ = .93 (SD = .06, minimum = .80), and continuous variables had average r = .92 (SD = .12, minimum = .73).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoningIncluded studies experimentally manipulated depicted fear across groups.
“Studies were included if they experimentally manipulated depicted fear across groups.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningDrawing on the distinction between fear appeals and fear, the subjective experience of the message recipient should be an important aspect of fear appeal communications.
“Second, drawing on our previous distinction between fear appeals and fear, the subjective experience of the message recipient should be an important aspect of fear appeal communications.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductnone givenThe lack of subjective fear measures makes it difficult for researchers interested in the effects of fear (rather than fear appeals) to investigate relevant hypotheses meta-analytically.
“Finally, the lack of subjective fear measures makes it difficult for researchers interested in the effects of fear (rather than fear appeals) to investigate relevant hypotheses meta-analytically.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationcitationThe source of a fear appeal communication should be an important moderator for fear appeal effectiveness.
“based on a well-established body of literature in persuasion demonstrating that aspects of a message’s source can influence the persuasiveness of the message (Briñol & Petty, 2009; Kumkale et al., 2010; Pornpitakpan, 2004; Wilson & Sherrell, 1993), the source of a fear appeal communication should be an important moderator for fear appeal effectiveness.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataFear appeals consistently work, and the meta-analysis identified various factors that can enhance their effectiveness.
“Rather, fear appeals consistently work, and through our meta-analysis we were able to identify various factors that can enhance their effectiveness to make them work even better.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationcitationThe updated review is consistent with conclusions from prior reviews that mechanisms are often under-studied and need additional research.
“Although some of the theories investigated do discuss mechanism to some degree (e.g., EPPM; Witte, 1992), our updated review of the literature is consistent with conclusions from prior reviews that these mechanisms are often under-studied and are in need of additional research (e.g., Popova, 2012).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Popova, 2012 source
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductnone givenTo test TMT hypotheses, studies were coded as either containing the word death or not.
“Specifically, to test hypotheses related to TMT, studies were coded as either containing the word death or not.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoningMeta-analyses are a correlational research design, so many moderator analyses should be interpreted with this in mind.
“However, meta-analyses are a correlational research design, and thus many of the moderator analyses we conducted should be interpreted with this in mind.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoningSome studies did not include full texts for fear appeal messages, so it is possible that some messages contained the word death but were coded as not containing it.
“However, some studies did not include full texts for fear appeal messages, and thus it is possible that some messages did contain the word death but were nonetheless coded as not containing this word (however, studies were only coded as containing the word death if a portion of the message’s text was available that showed this word).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoningThe present meta-analysis only included experimental studies that compared treatment and comparison groups, so internal validity is good when considering the effects of relatively high versus low depicted fear.
“The present meta-analysis only included experimental studies that compared treatment and comparison groups, and thus internal validity is good when considering the effects of relatively high versus low depicted fear.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataWhen testing all three hypotheses, fear appeals generally had positive effects on attitudes, intentions, and behaviors when they were high in depicted severity and/or susceptibility.
“Thus, when testing all three hypotheses, fear appeals generally had positive effects on attitudes, intentions, and behaviors when they were high in depicted severity and/or susceptibility.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataThe present results concern fear appeals rather than fear; the meta-analysis compared groups exposed to more or less fear-inducing content, not people who were subjectively afraid versus unafraid.
“First, as discussed in the introduction, the present results concern fear appeals rather than fear. That is, our meta-analysis did not compare people who were subjectively afraid to people who were subjectively unafraid, but rather we compared groups that were exposed to more or less fear inducing content.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
The 248 samples included in the meta-analysis are statistically independent.
“providing 248 statistically independent samples”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Fear appeals are particularly effective at positively influencing attitudes, intentions, and behaviour under specific circumstances.
“Results from a comprehensive meta-analysis by Tannenbaum et al. [35] showed that fear appeals are particularly effective at positively influencing attitudes, intentions, and behaviour under specific circumstances.”
From Misinformation lingers in memory: Failure of three pro-vaccination strategies (2017) · cites this paper as [35]
Cites
A Mathematical Theory of Communication
Shannon, C. E. (1948) · Bell System Technical Journal · doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1948.tb00917.x · Cited by 49,574 · see citing works
Conducting Meta-Analyses in <i>R</i> with the <b>metafor</b> Package
Viechtbauer, W. (2010) · Journal of Statistical Software · doi:10.18637/jss.v036.i03 · Cited by 20,464 · see citing works
The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1981) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.7455683 · Cited by 17,604 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…theory (Robertson, 1975; Rothman, Martino, Bedell, Detweiler, & Salovey, 1999), prospect theory (Rothman et al., 1999; Rothman & Salovey, 1997; Tversky & Kahneman, 1981), and terror management theory (Goldenberg & Arndt, 2008; Pyszczynski, Greenberg, & Solomon, 1999; Shehryar & Hunt, 2005;…”
BackgroundOperating characteristics of a rank correlation test for publication bias
Begg, C. B., & Mazumdar, M. (1994) · Biometrics · doi:10.2307/2533446 · Cited by 16,955 · see citing works
Stages and processes of self-change of smoking: Toward an integrative model of change.
Prochaska, J. O., & DiClemente, C. C. (1983) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.51.3.390 · Cited by 9,098 · cited 3× · see citing works
“In contrast, late stage individuals are already committed to behavior change and do not require such motivational appeals (DiClemente et al., 1991; Nabi et al., 2008; Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983; Prochaska et al., 1992).”
BackgroundIn search of how people change: Applications to addictive behaviors.
Prochaska, J. O., DiClemente, C. C., & Norcross, J. C. (1992) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.47.9.1102 · Cited by 8,596 · see citing works
The Transtheoretical Model of Health Behavior Change.
Prochaska, J. O., & Velicer, W. F. (1997) · American Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.4278/0890-1171-12.1.38 · Cited by 7,782 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…behaviors can be classified as belonging to an early stage (the model's precontemplation , contemplation, and preparation stages) or a late stage (the model's action and maintenance stages) in the change process (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983; Prochaska et al., 1992; Prochaska & Velicer, 1997).”
BackgroundHistorical Origins of the Health Belief Model
Rosenstock, I. M. (1974) · Health Education Monographs · doi:10.1177/109019817400200403 · Cited by 6,116 · cited 6× · see citing works
“To produce d for any ORs, we divided the log of the OR by 1.81 (Haddock, Rindskopf, & Shadish, 1998; Hasselblad & Hedges, 1995).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialRethinking individualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses.
Oyserman, D., Coon, H. M., & Kemmelmeier, M. (2002) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.1.3 · Cited by 5,758 · see citing works
Handbook of Personality : Theory and Research
Pervin, L. A. (1992) · Cited by 4,543 · see citing works
Human Inference: Strategies and Shortcomings of Social Judgment.
Cherniak, C., Nisbett, R. E., & Ross, L. D. (1983) · The Philosophical Review · doi:10.2307/2184495 · Cited by 4,196 · see citing works
Putting the fear back into fear appeals: the extended parallel process model
Witte, K. (1992) · Communication Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637759209376276 · Cited by 3,880 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…of fear appeals (e.g., Hovland et al., 1953), the health belief model (Rosenstock , 1966; Becker, 1974; Becker et al., 1977, 1978; Rosenstock, 1974), the parallel process model (Leventhal, 1970), the extended parallel process model (Witte, 1992, 1998), and the stage model (de Hoog et al., 2007).”
BackgroundMethodA Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeals: Implications for Effective Public Health Campaigns
Witte, K., & Allen, M. (2000) · Health Education & Behavior · doi:10.1177/109019810002700506 · Cited by 3,216 · cited 8× · see citing works
“The linear and curvilinear models have been tested in prior meta-analyses, and the linear model has consistently been supported by existing data, whereas the curvilinear model has not (e.g., Witte & Allen, 2000).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986) · Communication and Persuasion · doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-4964-1_1 · Cited by 3,202 · see citing works
Health Belief Model and Personal Health Behavior
Becker, M. H. (1976) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 3,065 · see citing works
Miller, G. A., & Cantor, N. E. (1982) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.1982.1.1.83 · Cited by 2,862 · see citing works
A Meta‐Analysis of Research on Protection Motivation Theory
Floyd, D. L., Prentice‐Dunn, S., & Rogers, R. W. (2000) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02323.x · Cited by 2,527 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Further, both models predict that low levels of depicted fear will be relatively less motivating and less effective than moderate levels of fear.”
BackgroundDiClemente, C. C., Prochaska, J. O., Fairhurst, S., Velicer, W. F., Velasquez, M. M., & Rossi, J. S. (1991) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.59.2.295 · Cited by 2,402 · see citing works
Protection motivation and self-efficacy: A revised theory of fear appeals and attitude change
Maddux, J. E., & Rogers, R. W. (1983) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(83)90023-9 · Cited by 2,342 · see citing works
Why People Use Health Services
Rosenstock, I. M. (2005) · Milbank Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0009.2005.00425.x · Cited by 2,329 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…model of fear appeals (e.g., Witte & Allen, 2000), the curvilinear model of fear appeals (e.g., Hovland et al., 1953), the health belief model (Rosenstock , 1966; Becker, 1974; Becker et al., 1977, 1978; Rosenstock, 1974), the parallel process model (Leventhal, 1970), the extended parallel…”
BackgroundIs there a universal need for positive self-regard?
Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1999) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.106.4.766 · Cited by 2,247 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Specifically, collectivist cultures socialize group members to be vigilant to avoid negative outcomes because such outcomes may reflect poorly on the group as a whole (Heine et al., 1999; Kitayama et al., 1997).”
Background(2017) · doi:10.5040/9798400682018.ch-003 · Cited by 2,247 · see citing works
The Persuasiveness of Source Credibility: A Critical Review of Five Decades' Evidence
Pornpitakpan, C. (2004) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2004.tb02547.x · Cited by 2,205 · cited 1× · see citing works
“First, based on a well-established body of literature in persuasion demonstrating that aspects of a message’s source can influence the persuasiveness of the message (Briñol & Petty, 2009; Kumkale et al., 2010; Pornpitakpan, 2004; Wilson & Sherrell, 1993), the source of a fear appeal communication should be an importan…”
BackgroundHandbook of Personality Theory and Research.
Schwartz, M. L., Borgatta, E. F., & Lambert, W. W. (1970) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2093310 · Cited by 2,182 · see citing works
Sears, D. O. (1986) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.3.515 · Cited by 2,138 · cited 4× · see citing works
“, 1992; Prochaska & Velicer, 1997), Sears’ age and persuasion theory (Sears, 1983; Sears, 1986), and the elaboration likelihood model (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986).”
BackgroundInfluentialGoldstein, S. (2015) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315664446-7 · Cited by 2,014 · see citing works
Shaping perceptions to motivate healthy behavior: The role of message framing.
Rothman, A. J., & Salovey, P. (1997) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.121.1.3 · Cited by 1,932 · cited 3× · see citing works
“…Robertson's single action theory (Robertson, 1975; Rothman, Martino, Bedell, Detweiler, & Salovey, 1999), prospect theory (Rothman et al., 1999; Rothman & Salovey, 1997; Tversky & Kahneman, 1981), and terror management theory (Goldenberg & Arndt, 2008; Pyszczynski, Greenberg, & Solomon, 1999;…”
BackgroundKitayama, S., Markus, H. R., Matsumoto, H., & Norasakkunkit, V. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.6.1245 · Cited by 1,581 · see citing works
MILNE, S., Sheeran, P., & Orbell, S. (2000) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02308.x · Cited by 1,461 · cited 3× · see citing works
“F. (2007). The impact of vulnerability to and severity of a health risk on processing and acceptance of fear-arousing communications: A meta-analysis.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialCulture’s consequences: Economic barriers to owning mobile phones experienced by women in India
Potnis, D. D. (2015) · Telematics and Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.tele.2015.09.002 · Cited by 1,405 · see citing works
Pyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J., & Solomon, S. (1999) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.106.4.835 · Cited by 1,390 · cited 1× · see citing works
“According to TMT, when people are reminded of their mortality by being exposed to the concept of death, they often become motivated to buffer their self-esteem to reduce mortality related anxiety (Goldenberg & Arndt, 2008; Pyszczynski et al., 1999; Shehryar & Hunt, 2005; Solomon et al., 1991).”
BackgroundFindings and Theory in the Study of Fear Communications
Leventhal, H. (1970) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60091-x · Cited by 1,339 · see citing works
Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., & Pyszczynski, T. (1991) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60328-7 · Cited by 1,296 · cited 2× · see citing works
“According to TMT, when people are reminded of their mortality by being exposed to the concept of death, they often become motivated to buffer their self-esteem to reduce mortality related anxiety (Goldenberg & Arndt, 2008; Pyszczynski et al., 1999; Shehryar & Hunt, 2005; Solomon et al., 1991).”
BackgroundThe effect of message framing on breast self-examination attitudes, intentions, and behavior.
Meyerowitz, B. E., & Chaiken, S. (1987) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.52.3.500 · Cited by 1,103 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Fear appeals are loss-framed messages because they emphasize negative consequences, and loss-framed information makes people more willing than usual to take risks (Meyerowitz & Chaiken, 1987; Van't Riet et al., 2014).”
BackgroundConstruct Validation of the Health Belief Model
Cummings, K. M., Jette, A. M., & Rosenstock, I. M. (1978) · Health Education Monographs · doi:10.1177/109019817800600406 · Cited by 1,000 · see citing works
Cultural Pathways Through Universal Development
Greenfield, P. M., Keller, H., Fuligni, A., & Maynard, A. (2003) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145221 · Cited by 986 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Cultures differ along a variety of dimensions including socialization practices and values (Greenfield et al., 2003; Schwartz, 2009), and thus members of certain cultures may be socialized to place more emphasis on either prevention or promotion focused behavioral strategies.”
BackgroundEffects of fear-arousing communications.
Janis, I. L., & Feshbach, S. (1953) · Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0060732 · Cited by 893 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…in which message recipients disengage from the message, avoid further exposure to the message, and/or derogate the message because it is too frightening (Higbee, 1969; Hovland et al., 1953; Janis, 1967, 1968; Janis & Feshbach, 1953; Janis & Leventhal , 1968; McGuire, 1968, 1969; Millman, 1968).”
BackgroundThe Health Belief Model and prediction of dietary compliance: a field experiment.
Becker, M., Maiman, L. A., Kirscht, J. P., Haefner, D., & Drachman, R. (1977) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.2307/2955344 · Cited by 854 · see citing works
Jennings, M. K., & Niemi, R. G. (1981) · Princeton University Press eBooks · doi:10.1515/9781400854264 · Cited by 775 · see citing works
Rippetoe, P. A., & Rogers, R. W. (1987) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.52.3.596 · Cited by 713 · see citing works
Peters, G.-J. Y., Ruiter, R. A. C., & Kok, G. (2013) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2012.703527 · Cited by 679 · cited 2× · see citing works
“analyses concerning the use of efficacy statements (de Hoog et al., 2007; Peters et al., 2012; Witte & Allen, 2000).”
MethodResultSource effects in communication and persuasion research: A meta-analysis of effect size
Wilson, E. J., & Sherrell, D. L. (1993) · Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science · doi:10.1007/bf02894421 · Cited by 677 · see citing works
Effects of fear and specificity of recommendation upon attitudes and behavior.
Leventhal, H., Singer, R., & Jones, S. E. (1965) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0022089 · Cited by 622 · cited 1× · see citing works
“I — Leventhal et al. (1965) 1: No prior vaccination .60 59 AI Y Y Y O PP N —”
BackgroundDefensive processing of personally relevant health messages
liberman, A., & Chaiken, S. (1992) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167292186002 · Cited by 619 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…1995) and whether depicted susceptibility was manipulated to be higher in the treatment group relative to the comparison group (e.g., the treatment group received a message focusing on how coffee consumption will likely lead the message recipient to develop fibromyalgia ; Liberman & Chaiken, 1992).”
BackgroundResultSixty years of fear appeal research: Current state of the evidence
Ruiter, R. A. C., Kessels, L. T. E., Peters, G.-J., & Kok, G. (2014) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1002/ijop.12042 · Cited by 586 · cited 1× · see citing works
“These theories concern the level of depicted fear within messages, the use (or omission) of efficacy statements within messages, and the level of depicted susceptibility and/or severity within messages.”
BackgroundMeta-analysis of screening and diagnostic tests.
Hasselblad, V., & Hedges, L. V. (1995) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.117.1.167 · Cited by 579 · cited 1× · see citing works
“To produce d for any ORs, we divided the log of the OR by 1.81 (Haddock, Rindskopf, & Shadish, 1998; Hasselblad & Hedges, 1995).”
MethodInfluentialEffects of Fear Arousal on Attitude Change: Recent Developments in Theory and Experimental Research
Janis, I. L. (1967) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60344-5 · Cited by 493 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…in which message recipients disengage from the message, avoid further exposure to the message, and/or derogate the message because it is too frightening (Higbee, 1969; Hovland et al., 1953; Janis, 1967, 1968; Janis & Feshbach, 1953; Janis & Leventhal , 1968; McGuire, 1968, 1969; Millman, 1968).”
BackgroundThe Protection Motivation Model: A Normative Model of Fear Appeals
Tanner, J. F., Hunt, J. B., & Eppright, D. R. (1991) · Journal of Marketing · doi:10.2307/1252146 · Cited by 475 · cited 1× · see citing works
“27 38 I Y Y Y R PP N SEE S 50 I — Tanner et al. (1991) .81 60 I N — —”
Rogers, R. W., & Mewborn, C. (1976) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.34.1.54 · Cited by 456 · see citing works
Jennings, M. K., & Markus, G. B. (1984) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.2307/1955804 · Cited by 407 · see citing works
Rothman, A. J., Martino, S. C., Bedell, B. T., Detweiler, J. B., & Salovey, P. (1999) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167299259003 · Cited by 379 · cited 2× · see citing works
“According to Robertson (1975; also see Rothman et al., 1999), persuasive messages should be more successful when they recommend one-time behaviors (e.g., getting vaccinated) compared with behaviors that must be repeated over an extended period of time (e.g., exercising).”
BackgroundRegulatory Fit and Persuasion: Basic Principles and Remaining Questions
Cesario, J., Higgins, E. T., & Scholer, A. A. (2007) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00055.x · Cited by 371 · see citing works
The Extended Parallel Process Model: Illuminating the Gaps in Research
Popova, L. (2012) · Health Education & Behavior · doi:10.1177/1090198111418108 · Cited by 361 · see citing works
Haddock, C., Rindskopf, D., & Shadish, W. (1998) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.3.3.339 · Cited by 349 · see citing works
The sleeper effect in persuasion: a meta-analytic review.
Kumkale, G. T., & Albarracín, D. (2004) · Psychological bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.1.143 · Cited by 343 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Multiple Affective Outcomes of AIDS PSAs
Dillard, J. P., Plotnick, C. A., GODBOLD, L. C., Freimuth, V. S., & Edgar, T. (1996) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/009365096023001002 · Cited by 325 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…the impact of message characteristics on fear appeal effectiveness: 1 The linear model of fear appeals (e.g., Witte & Allen, 2000), the curvilinear model of fear appeals (e.g., Hovland et al., 1953), the health belief model (Rosenstock , 1966; Becker, 1974; Becker et al., 1977, 1978;…”
BackgroundGoldenberg, J. L., & Arndt, J. (2008) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0013326 · Cited by 320 · cited 7× · see citing works
“Proximal defenses involve refuting information to avoid considering one's death, whereas distal defenses involve buffering one's self-esteem and pursuing long-term goals (e.g., a healthy lifestyle; Goldenberg & Arndt, 2008).”
BackgroundInfluentialIncreasing the Persuasiveness of Fear Appeals: The Effect of Arousal and Elaboration
Keller, P. A., & Block, L. (1996) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/209461 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
de Hoog, N., Stroebe, W., & de Wit, J. B. F. (2007) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.11.3.258 · Cited by 302 · cited 6× · see citing works
“…of fear appeals (e.g., Hovland et al., 1953), the health belief model (Rosenstock , 1966; Becker, 1974; Becker et al., 1977, 1978; Rosenstock, 1974), the parallel process model (Leventhal, 1970), the extended parallel process model (Witte, 1992, 1998), and the stage model (de Hoog et al., 2007).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialFifteen years of fear arousal: Research on threat appeals: 1953-1968.
Higbee, K. L. (1969) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0028430 · Cited by 294 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…in which message recipients disengage from the message, avoid further exposure to the message, and/or derogate the message because it is too frightening (Higbee, 1969; Hovland et al., 1953; Janis, 1967, 1968; Janis & Feshbach, 1953; Janis & Leventhal , 1968; McGuire, 1968, 1969; Millman, 1968).”
BackgroundDahl, D. W., Frankenberger, K. D., & Manchanda, R. V. (2003) · Journal of Advertising Research · doi:10.1017/s0021849903030332 · Cited by 278 · cited 2× · see citing works
“, 2009) or a primarily individualist culture (e.g., Western cultures like Australia, Canada, and the United States; Beck, 1984; Brouwers & Sorrentino, 1993; Dahl et al., 2003; Hill & Gardner, 1980; Jones & Owen, 2006; LaTour & Tanner, 2003; Lewis et al., 2010; Smart & Fejer, 1974).”
BackgroundGreenberg, J., Arndt, J., Simon, L., Pyszczynski, T., & Solomon, S. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167200261009 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
Fear-Arousing Persuasive Messages
Boster, F. J., & Mongeau, P. (1984) · Annals of the International Communication Association · doi:10.1080/23808985.1984.11678581 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
Source factors in persuasion: A self-validation approach
Briñol, P., & Petty, R. E. (2009) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463280802643640 · Cited by 243 · see citing works
Effects of fear and instructions on how to cope with danger.
Leventhal, H., Watts, J. C., & Pagano, F. (1967) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0021222 · Cited by 240 · cited 1× · see citing works
“I L Leventhal et al. (1967) .53 106 I Y Y N R PP N —”
Compliance with a medical regimen for asthma: a test of the health belief model.
Becker, M. H., Radius, S. M., Rosenstock, I. M., Drachman, R. H., Schuberth, K. C., & Teets, K. C. (1978) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 227 · see citing works
Sources of resistance to fear-arousing communications on smoking and lung cancer1
Leventhal, H., & Watts, J. C. (1966) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1966.tb01706.x · Cited by 215 · cited 1× · see citing works
“S — I E Leventhal and Watts (1966) 1: Smokers Ϫ1.”
BackgroundFear‐Arousing and Empathy‐Arousing Appeals to Help: The Pathos of Persuasion
Shelton, M. L., & Rogers, R. W. (1981) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1981.tb00829.x · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Lockwood, P., Marshall, T. C., & Sadler, P. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204271598 · Cited by 209 · cited 2× · see citing works
“According to regulatory fit theory, people can be promotion or prevention focused, placing greater value on either the pursuit of positive outcomes or on the avoidance of negative outcomes, respectively (Higgins et al., 2008; Kurman & Hui, 2011; Lockwood et al., 2005).”
BackgroundAn experimental study of psychological resistances to fear arousing communications.
Janis, I. L., & Terwilliger, R. F. (1962) · Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0047601 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
How Disgust Enhances the Effectiveness of Fear Appeals
Morales, A. C., Wu, E. C., & Fitzsimons, G. J. (2012) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmr.07.0364 · Cited by 176 · cited 3× · see citing works
“S 67 I — Morales et al. (2012) 1: Study 1 (methamphetamine use) .42 104 I N N N R PP Y —”
BackgroundInfluentialCulture Matters: National Value Cultures, Sources, and Consequences
Schwartz, S. H. (2013) · doi:10.4324/9781441605054-16 · Cited by 173 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Cultures differ along a variety of dimensions including socialization practices and values (Greenfield et al., 2003; Schwartz, 2009), and thus members of certain cultures may be socialized to place more emphasis on either prevention or promotion focused behavioral strategies.”
BackgroundPreventing the Spread of Genital Warts: Using Fear Appeals to Promote Self-Protective Behaviors
Witte, K., Berkowitz, J. M., Cameron, K. A., & McKeon, J. K. (1998) · Health Education & Behavior · doi:10.1177/109019819802500505 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Das, E. H. H. J., de Wit, J. B. F., & Stroebe, W. (2003) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167203029005009 · Cited by 163 · cited 2× · see citing works
“I coded whether the recommended behaviors concerned one-time-only instances (e.g., signing up for a stress management training; Das et al., 2003) or would need to be enacted over an extended period of time (e.”
BackgroundThe Impact of Fear Appeals on Processing and Acceptance of Action Recommendations
de Hoog, N., Stroebe, W., & de Wit, J. B. F. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204271321 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Wong, N. C. H., & Cappella, J. N. (2009) · Journal of Applied Communication Research · doi:10.1080/00909880802593928 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Kumkale, G. T., Albarracín, D., & Seignourel, P. J. (2010) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00620.x · Cited by 160 · cited 1× · see citing works
“First, based on a well-established body of literature in persuasion demonstrating that aspects of a message’s source can influence the persuasiveness of the message (Briñol & Petty, 2009; Kumkale et al., 2010; Pornpitakpan, 2004; Wilson & Sherrell, 1993), the source of a fear appeal communication should be an importan…”
BackgroundSelf-citationWurtele, S. K., & Maddux, J. E. (1987) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037//0278-6133.6.5.453 · Cited by 160 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…that people have a built-in urge for physical activity and this basic human physical need will make it easy to begin a regular exercise program; Wurtele & Maddux, 1987), response-efficacy (e.g., emphasizing that exercise leads to higher levels of high-density lipoprotein and thus prevents…”
BackgroundEffects of varying the recommendations in a fear-arousing communication.
Dabbs, J. M., & Leventhal, H. (1966) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0021190 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Adolescent Processing of Social and Physical Threat Communications
Schoenbachler, D. D., & Whittler, T. E. (1996) · Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/00913367.1996.10673511 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Handbook of Motivation and Cognition Across Cultures
(2008) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-373694-9.x0001-3 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Brouwers, M. C., & Sorrentino, R. M. (1993) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.65.1.102 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
The processing of fear‐arousing communications: How biased processing leads to persuasion
de Hoog, N., Stroebe, W., & de Wit, J. B. F. (2008) · Social Influence · doi:10.1080/15534510802185836 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Role of Negative Emotion in Communication about CO2 Risks
Meijnders, A. L., Midden, C. J. H., & Wilke, H. (2001) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/0272-4332.215164 · Cited by 142 · cited 2× · see citing works
“S 50 I — Meijnders et al. (2001b) 1: Weak arguments .46 40 A Y Y N O PP N —”
InfluentialEarl, A., & Albarracín, D. (2007) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.26.4.496 · Cited by 136 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Further, both models predict that low levels of depicted fear will be relatively less motivating and less effective than moderate levels of fear.”
BackgroundSelf-citationLewis, I. M., Watson, B. C., & White, K. M. (2009) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2009.09.008 · Cited by 135 · cited 2× · see citing works
“, 2009) or a primarily individualist culture (e.g., Western cultures like Australia, Canada, and the United States; Beck, 1984; Brouwers & Sorrentino, 1993; Dahl et al., 2003; Hill & Gardner, 1980; Jones & Owen, 2006; LaTour & Tanner, 2003; Lewis et al., 2010; Smart & Fejer, 1974).”
BackgroundExpectations of reassurance influence the nature of fear-stimulated attitude change
Gleicher, F., & Petty, R. E. (1992) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(92)90033-g · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Fear appeal messages affect accessibility of attitudes toward the threat and adaptive behaviors
Roskos‐Ewoldsen, D. R., Yu, J. H., & Rhodes, N. D. (2004) · Communication Monographs · doi:10.1080/0363452042000228559 · Cited by 133 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…agreement with statements such as, " In the immediate future, I plan to find someone who will teach me to do an accurate breast self-examination " ; Roskos-Ewoldsen et al., 2004, p. 58) and questions with dichotomous response options (e.g., " In the future, I intend to stop spending time outside…”
BackgroundLewis, I. M., Watson, B. C., & White, K. M. (2008) · Transportation Research Part F Traffic Psychology and Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.trf.2008.03.003 · Cited by 130 · cited 1× · see citing works
“S — I E Lewis et al. (2008) 1: Male, low involvement .23 35 A N Y N R PP Y SEE L 0 I L 2: Male, high involvement .44 36 A N Y N R PP Y —”
BackgroundThe interest value and relevance of fear arousing communications.
Berkowitz, L. J., & Cottingham, D. R. (1960) · Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0045247 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
The Effectiveness of Empathy- Versus Fear-Arousing Antismoking PSAs
Shen, L. (2011) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2011.552480 · Cited by 128 · cited 1× · see citing works
“I — Shen (2011) .59 174 A N Y N R PP N —”
Evans, R. I., Rozelle, R. M., Lasater, T. M., Dembroski, T. M., & Allen, B. P. (1970) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0029834 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Personality Differences Associated with Responsiveness to Fear-Arousing Communications1
JANIS, I. L., & FESHBACH, S. (1954) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1954.tb01145.x · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Cho, H., & Salmon, C. T. (2006) · Health Communication · doi:10.1207/s15327027hc2001_9 · Cited by 118 · cited 2× · see citing works
“As a result, exposure to a fear appeal should lead individuals who have already enacted change to process the fear appeal in the context of their high response efficacy (Cho & Salmon, 2006).”
BackgroundYoon, H. J., & Tinkham, S. F. (2013) · Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/00913367.2012.749082 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Cauberghe, V., Pelsmacker, P. D., Janssens, W., & Dens, N. (2008) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2008.11.006 · Cited by 115 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…measured with semantic differential scales (e.g., positive/negative, beneficial/harmful, wise/foolish, etc.; Nabi et al., 2008; Roskos-Ewoldsen, Yu, & Rhodes, 2004) and Likert style scales (e.g., agreement with statements such as, " I don't like speeding " ; Cauberghe et al., 2009, p. 280).”
BackgroundGriffeth, R. W., & Rogers, R. W. (1976) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.68.4.501 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Subjective Knowledge and Fear Appeal Effectiveness: Implications for Message Design
Nabi, R. L., Roskos‐Ewoldsen, D. R., & Carpentier, F. R. D. (2008) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410230701808327 · Cited by 111 · cited 4× · see citing works
“In contrast, late stage individuals are already committed to behavior change and do not require such motivational appeals (DiClemente et al., 1991; Nabi et al., 2008; Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983; Prochaska et al., 1992).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDoes a threat appeal moderate reckless driving? A terror management theory perspective
Ben‐Ari, O. T. –., Florián, V., & Mikulincer, M. (2000) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/s0001-4575(99)00042-1 · Cited by 109 · cited 4× · see citing works
“81 60 I N — — R PP N — S — I — Ben-Ari et al. (2000) 1: Study 1, low driving-related selfesteem 1.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialIncreasing Women's Calcium Intake: The Role of Health Beliefs, Intentions, and Health Value1
Wurtele, S. K. (1988) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1988.tb00041.x · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Mcmath, B. F., & Prentice‐Dunn, S. (2005) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2005.tb02138.x · Cited by 109 · cited 1× · see citing works
“….35 86 I N N Y R PP N SEE S 100 I — Lwin and Malik (2014) 1: With wii .10 199 AI N Y N R PP N SEE L 42 C E 2: Without wii Ϫ.24 199 AI N Y N R PP N SEE L 42 C E McMath and Prentice-Dunn (2005) 1.06 196 I Y Y N R PP N SEH S 74 I E Meijnders et al. (2001a) 1: Weak arguments Ϫ.27 54 AI N Y N O PP N —”
InfluentialFear, threat, and perceptions of efficacy from frightening skin cancer messages.
Stephenson, M. T., & Witte, K. (1998) · PubMed · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Keller, P. A. (1999) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.84.3.403 · Cited by 105 · cited 1× · see citing works
“12039 Keller, P. A. (1999). Converting the unconverted: The effect of inclination and opportunity to discount health-related fear appeals.”
BackgroundEffects of fear appeals and physiological arousal upon emotion, attitudes, and cigarette smoking.
Rogers, R. W., & Deckner, C. W. (1975) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.32.2.222 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Don’t Be Afraid to Use Fear Appeals: An Experimental Study
LaTour, M. S., Snipes, R. L., & Bliss, S. J. (1996) · Journal of Advertising Research · doi:10.1080/00218499.1996.12466523 · Cited by 104 · cited 1× · see citing works
“S — I E Klohn and Rogers (1991) .68 85 I N Y N R PP N SEE S 100 I E LaTour et al. (1996) .29 305 AI N Y N O PP N —”
Joe Sampson, K. W. (2001) · Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.1080/108107301317140823 · Cited by 102 · cited 1× · see citing works
“As African and European cultures tend to be more individualist, whereas Asian and Hispanic/Latino(a) cultures tend to be more collectivist (Sampson et al., 2001), I tested whether fear appeals were less effective when samples included higher percentages of African and European participants but more effective when samp…”
BackgroundFear appeals in HIV prevention: The role of anticipated regret
Smerecnik, C. M. R., & Ruiter, R. A. C. (2010) · Psychology Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548506.2010.498888 · Cited by 99 · cited 1× · see citing works
“I — Smerecnik and Ruiter (2010) 1: Low efficacy Ϫ.19 30 I N Y N R PP Y —”
BackgroundFinding theory‐ and evidence‐based alternatives to fear appeals: Intervention Mapping
Kok, G., Bartholomew, L. K., Parcel, G. S., Gottlieb, N. H., & Fernández, M. E. (2013) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1002/ijop.12001 · Cited by 96 · cited 10× · see citing works
“54 352 AB Y Y N O PP N — S 80 I E Witte and Morrison (1995) .32 122 AIB Y Y Y R PP N — L 45 I — Witte et al. (1998) .03 96 AIB N Y Y R PP N — S 100 I — Wong and Cappella (2009) 1: Low efficacy .01 277 I N Y N R PP Y — S 47 I E 1: High efficacy .81 278 I Y Y N R PP Y — S 47 I E Wurtele and Maddux (1987) 1: No efficacy…”
InfluentialSmith, K. H., & Stutts, M. A. (2003) · Journal of Consumer Behaviour · doi:10.1002/cb.130 · Cited by 95 · cited 1× · see citing works
“S 65 I L Smith and Stutts (2003) 1: Males, overall .29 79 B N Y N R PP Y —”
BackgroundA field experiment on fear arousal with data on the validity of questionnaire measures1
Leventhal, H., & Niles, P. (1964) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1964.tb01352.x · Cited by 95 · cited 1× · see citing works
“S 43 I — Leventhal and Niles (1964) .45 209 AI Y Y N O D N —”
A Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of the First Federally Funded Antismoking Campaign
Xu, X., Alexander, R. L., Simpson, S. A., Goates, S., Nonnemaker, J. M., Davis, K., & McAfee, T. A. (2014) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2014.10.011 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Fear arousal, efficacy, and imminency.
Chu, G. C. (1966) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0021189 · Cited by 93 · cited 1× · see citing works
“We dichotomously coded whether each study’s sample came from a primarily collectivist culture (e.g., East Asian cultures like South Korea, Japan, and Taiwan; Chu, 1966; Fukada, 1973, 1975, 1988; Kim et al., 2009) or a primarily individualist culture (e.”
Re-thinking Culture and Personality
Higgins, E. T., Pierro, A., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2008) · Handbook of Motivation and Cognition Across Cultures · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-373694-9.00008-8 · Cited by 91 · cited 2× · see citing works
“According to regulatory focus theory, people can be prevention or promotion focused, placing greater value on either the avoidance of negative outcomes or the pursuit of positive outcomes, respectively (Higgins et al., 2008).”
BackgroundThe role of vivid information in fear appeals and attitude change
Sherer, M., & Rogers, R. W. (1984) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/0092-6566(84)90016-3 · Cited by 91 · cited 1× · see citing works
“A message high in depicted susceptibility emphasizes the message recipient's personal risk for negative consequences (e.g., " One of fourteen women is destined to develop breast cancer during her life.”
BackgroundEffects of public education about breast cancer and breast self-examination
Siero, S., Kok, G., & Pruyn, J. F. A. (1984) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/0277-9536(84)90157-6 · Cited by 91 · cited 8× · see citing works
“" ; Siero et al., 1984).”
BackgroundInfluentialEffects of high and low fear-arousing communications upon opinions toward smoking
Insko, C. A., Arkoff, A., & Insko, V. M. (1965) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(65)90030-2 · Cited by 91 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Messages dealing with behaviors or issues that could clearly lead to death were still coded as nondeath if the word death was not explicitly mentioned within the message itself (e.g., messages about smoking or HIV/AIDS that did not explicitly mention death as one of the potential consequences; Insko et al., 1965; McMa…”
BackgroundScaring the Already Scared: Some Problems With HIV/AIDS Fear Appeals in Namibia
Muthusamy, N., Levine, T. R., & Weber, R. (2009) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2009.01418.x · Cited by 86 · cited 1× · see citing works
“, 2008; Smart & Fejer, 1974; Stainback & Rogers, 1983); (b) the measure occurred one to fourteen days after fear appeal exposure (e.g., Berkowitz, 1998; Kirscht et al., 1978; Muthusamy et al., 2009); and (c) the measure occurred more than fourteen days after fear”
BackgroundMeijnders, A. L., Midden, C. J. H., & Wilke, H. (2001) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2001.tb01412.x · Cited by 86 · cited 2× · see citing works
“S 50 I — Meijnders et al. (2001b) 1: Weak arguments .46 40 A Y Y N O PP N —”
InfluentialDeterminants of Self‐Protective Behavior: Home Radon Testing
Weinstein, N. D., Sandman, P. M., & Roberts, N. E. (1990) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1990.tb00379.x · Cited by 85 · cited 1× · see citing works
“L 100 I E Weinstein et al. (1990) .24 264 I Y Y Y O D Y —”
Coping with the energy crisis: Effects of fear appeals upon attitudes toward energy consumption.
Hass, J. W., Bagley, G. S., & Rogers, R. W. (1975) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.60.6.754 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
A Terror Management Perspective on the Persuasiveness of Fear Appeals
Shehryar, O., & Hunt, D. M. (2005) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15327663jcp1504_2 · Cited by 80 · cited 5× · see citing works
“According to TMT, when people are reminded of their mortality by being exposed to the concept of death, they often become motivated to buffer their self-esteem to reduce mortality related anxiety (Goldenberg & Arndt, 2008; Pyszczynski et al., 1999; Shehryar & Hunt, 2005; Solomon et al., 1991).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Role of Coping Appraisal in Reactions to Fear Appeals: Do We Need Threat Information?
Ruiter, R. A. C., Verplanken, B., Kok, G., & Werrij, M. Q. (2003) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/13591053030084006 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Levin, A. M., Dato‐on, M. C., & Manolis, C. (2007) · Journal of Consumer Behaviour · doi:10.1002/cb.211 · Cited by 78 · cited 1× · see citing works
“S — I E Levin et al. (2007) Ϫ.41 222 I N Y N R PP N —”
Riet, J. V. ‘., Cox, A. D., Cox, D. S., Zimet, G. D., de Bruijn, G., van den Putte, B., de Vries, H., Werrij, M. Q., & Ruiter, R. A. C. (2014) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2014.896916 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Identifying effective components of alcohol misuse prevention programs.
Kleinot, M. C., & Rogers, R. W. (1982) · Journal of Studies on Alcohol · doi:10.15288/jsa.1982.43.802 · Cited by 75 · cited 1× · see citing works
“L 58 I — Kirscht et al. (1978) 1.23 109 B N Y N R PP Y SEE M 100 I E Kleinot and Rogers (1982) 1: Low efficacy .77 22 I N Y Y R PP Y —”
InfluentialSturges, J. W., & Rogers, R. W. (1996) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037//0278-6133.15.3.158 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Goldenbeld, C., Twisk, D. A. M., & Houwing, S. (2008) · Transportation Research Part F Traffic Psychology and Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.trf.2007.11.001 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Stainback, R. D., & Rogers, R. W. (1983) · International Journal of the Addictions · doi:10.3109/10826088309039356 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Effects of fear arousal and reassurance on attitude change.
Rogers, R. W., & Thistlethwaite, D. L. (1970) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0029437 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Radon: Appealing to our fears1
LaTour, M. S., & Tanner, J. F. (2003) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.10078 · Cited by 65 · cited 1× · see citing works
“S 100 I — LaTour and Tanner (2003) .13 124 AI N Y N O D N —”
The Relationship between Anxiety and Positive and Negative Advertising Appeals
Wheatley, J. J., & Oshikawa, S. (1970) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1177/002224377000700110 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
The influence of narrative risk communication on feelings of cancer risk
Janssen, E., van Osch, L., de Vries, H., & Lechner, L. (2012) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8287.2012.02098.x · Cited by 60 · cited 3× · see citing works
“, smokers that were highly committed to smoking; Priolo & Milhabet, 2008), or if the existing behavior is one that people typically engage in to improve self-esteem and/or physical attractiveness (e.g., tanning or bulimia; Janssen et al., 2013; Smalec & Klingle, 2000).”
BackgroundInfluentialSkilbeck, C. E., Tulips, J., & Ley, P. (1977) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420070208 · Cited by 56 · cited 1× · see citing works
“L 100 I L Skilbeck et al. (1977) 1: Single exposure Ϫ.99 40 B N Y N R PP N SEE M 100 I E 2: Multiple exposures Ϫ1.”
BackgroundGeneral Action and Inaction Goals
Albarracín, D., Hepler, J., & Tannenbaum, M. B. (2011) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721411402666 · Cited by 55 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Greenberg, & Pyszczynski, 1991), general action theory (Albarracin et al., 2011; Tannenbaum et al., 2011), and Colburn’s health relevance theory (Colburn, 1967).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSelf-Report and Psychophysiological Responses to Fear Appeals
Ordoñana, J. R., Javier, F. G., López, L. E., & Gómez-Amor, J. (2009) · Human Communication Research · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2009.01344.x · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Promotion, Prevention or Both: Regulatory Focus and Culture Revisited
Kurman, J., & Hui, C. M. (2011) · Online Readings in Psychology and Culture · doi:10.9707/2307-0919.1109 · Cited by 53 · cited 3× · see citing works
“…theories make predictions about the impact of the audience on fear appeal effectiveness: Regulatory fit theory (Higgins, Pierro, & Kruglanski, 2008; Kurman & Hui, 2011; Lockwood, Marshall, & Sadler, 2005) and the transtheoretical model (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983; Prochaska et al., 1992;…”
BackgroundUsing scare tactics to promote safer sex among juvenile detention and high school youth
Witte, K., & Morrison, K. (1995) · Journal of Applied Communication Research · doi:10.1080/00909889509365419 · Cited by 52 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…that exercise leads to higher levels of high-density lipoprotein and thus prevents heart attacks; Wurtele & Maddux, 1987), or both (e.g., highlighting that condoms substantially reduce the risk of HIV transmission if used correctly and are easy to use consistently; Witte & Morrison, 1995).”
BackgroundO’Keefe, D. J. (2013) · Annals of the International Communication Association · doi:10.1080/23808985.2013.11679151 · Cited by 51 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Further, prior research has demonstrated that composite measures combining attitudes, intentions, and behaviors are a valid outcome of interest when investigating the relative persuasiveness of messages (O’Keefe, 2013).”
BackgroundSelf, C. A., & Rogers, R. W. (1990) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/bf00844883 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Beck, K. H. (1984) · Social Behavior and Personality An International Journal · doi:10.2224/sbp.1984.12.2.121 · Cited by 49 · cited 1× · see citing works
“, 2009) or a primarily individualist culture (e.g., Western cultures like Australia, Canada, and the United States; Beck, 1984; Brouwers & Sorrentino, 1993; Dahl et al., 2003; Hill & Gardner, 1980; Jones & Owen, 2006; LaTour & Tanner, 2003; Lewis et al., 2010; Smart & Fejer, 1974).”
BackgroundKlohn, L. S., & Rogers, R. W. (1991) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037//0278-6133.10.5.323 · Cited by 49 · cited 11× · see citing works
“99 40 B N Y N R PP N SEE M 100 I E 2: Multiple exposures 1.23 46 B N Y N R PP N SEE M 100 I E Smalec and Klingle (2000) 1: Low efficacy .60 22 B N Y Y O PP N SEH S 81 I L 2: High efficacy 1.40 22 B Y Y Y O PP N SEH S 81 I L Smart and Fejer (1974) 1: Marijuana, nonusers .”
BackgroundInfluentialUsing fear appeals to promote cancer screening—are we scaring the wrong people?
Jones, S. C., & Owen, N. G. (2006) · International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing · doi:10.1002/nvsm.48 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Effects of threat appeals and media of transmission
Frandsen, K. D. (1963) · Speech Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637756309375365 · Cited by 43 · cited 1× · see citing works
“1186/1471-2458-14-30 Frandsen, K. D. (1963). Effects of threat appeals and media of transmission.”
BackgroundSmalec, J. L., & Klingle, R. S. (2000) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1023/a:1005468220077 · Cited by 41 · cited 3× · see citing works
“" with responses Yes and No; Smalec & Klingle, 2000, p. 45) or behavioral observation data (e.g., information obtained from medical records; Ordoñana et al., 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialFrance, K. E., Donovan, R. J., Bower, C. I., Elliott, E. J., Payne, J., D’Antoine, H., & Bartu, A. E. (2014) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-30 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
The Role of Esteem and Coping in Response to a Threat Communication.
Rosen, T., Terry, N. S., & Leventhal, H. (1982) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/0092-6566(82)90043-5 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
<scp>N</scp>euroticism and Attitudes Toward Action in 19 Countries
Ireland, M. E., Hepler, J., Li, H., & Albarracín, D. (2015) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12099 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Self-citationEffects of volunteering, fear arousal, and number of communications on attitude change.
Horowitz, I. A. (1969) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0027024 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Lwin, M. O., & Malik, S. (2013) · Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10810730.2013.798372 · Cited by 40 · cited 1× · see citing works
“S 100 I — 2: High relevance .35 86 I N N Y R PP N SEE S 100 I — Lwin and Malik (2014) 1: With wii .10 199 AI N Y N R PP N SEE L 42 C E 2: Without wii Ϫ.24 199 AI N Y N R PP N SEE L 42 C E McMath and Prentice-Dunn (2005) 1.06 196 I Y Y N R PP N SEH S 74 I E Meijnders et al. (2001a) 1: Weak arguments…”
InfluentialEffects of threatening communications and mothers' health beliefs on weight change in obese children
Kirscht, J. P., Becker, M. H., Haefner, D. P., & Maiman, L. A. (1978) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/bf00846636 · Cited by 40 · cited 2× · see citing works
“1983); (b) the measure occurred one to 14 days after fear appeal exposure (e.g., Berkowitz, 1998; Kirscht et al., 1978; Muthusamy et al., 2009); and (c) the measure occurred more than 14 days after fear appeal exposure (e.”
BackgroundInfluentialBehavioral research and strategies in public health: A demur
Robertson, L. S. (1975) · Social Science & Medicine (1967) · doi:10.1016/0037-7856(75)90053-0 · Cited by 40 · cited 4× · see citing works
“17 25 A N Y N R PP Y SEH S 57 I — Shelton and Rogers (1981) 1: Low empathy .85 56 I Y Y N R PP N — S — I — 2: High empathy .26 56 I Y Y N R PP N — S — I — Shen (2011) .59 174 A N Y N R PP N — S 66 I L Siero et al. (1984) .24 269 B N Y Y R D Y — L 100 I L Skilbeck et al. (1977) 1: Single exposure .”
BackgroundInfluentialHepler, J., & Albarracín, D. (2013) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2013.04.012 · Cited by 38 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Cultural research in the area of regulatory focus has found that women tend to be more prevention focused than men, and members of collectivist groups tend to be more prevention focused than members of individualist ones (Kurman & Hui, 2011; Lockwood, Marshall, & Sadler, 2005).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe effect of anxiety‐arousing messages when related to personal, familial, and impersonal referents
Powell, F. A. (1965) · Speech Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637756509375437 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Pepper, G. V., & Nettle, D. (2014) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.459 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
The Effects of High and Low Fear Messages about Drugs
Smart, R. G., & Fejer, D. (1974) · Journal of Drug Education · doi:10.2190/1v5h-1nk5-qnxm-465f · Cited by 38 · cited 1× · see citing works
“23 46 B N Y N R PP N SEE M 100 I E Smalec and Klingle (2000) 1: Low efficacy Ϫ.60 22 B N Y Y O PP N SEH S 81 I L 2: High efficacy 1.40 22 B Y Y Y O PP N SEH S 81 I L Smart and Fejer (1974) 1: Marijuana, nonusers Ϫ.05 856 I N Y Y R PP N SEE S —”
BackgroundInfluentialAnxiety, comprehension, and susceptibility to social influence.
Millman, S. (1968) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0021252 · Cited by 36 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…in which message recipients disengage from the message, avoid further exposure to the message, and/or derogate the message because it is too frightening (Higbee, 1969; Hovland et al., 1953; Janis, 1967, 1968; Janis & Feshbach, 1953; Janis & Leventhal , 1968; McGuire, 1968, 1969; Millman, 1968).”
BackgroundCooper, D., Goldenberg, J. L., & Arndt, J. (2013) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjhp.12019 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
The Effects of Fear of AIDS and Gender on Responses to Fear‐Arousing Condom Advertisements
Struckman‐Johnson, C., Gilliland, R. C., Struckman‐Johnson, D., & North, T. C. (1990) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1990.tb01480.x · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Dembroski, T. M., Lasater, T. M., & Ramírez, A. (1978) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1978.tb00781.x · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Ethnicity of Communicator, Self-Esteem, and Reactions to Fear-Arousing Communications
Ramírez, A., & Lasater, T. M. (1977) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.1977.9713243 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Feenstra, H., Ruiter, R. A. C., & Kok, G. (2014) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2014.09.024 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Will, K. E., Sabo, C. S., & Porter, B. E. (2008) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2008.09.007 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
New Measure of Effects of Persuasive Communications: A Chemical Indicator of Toothbrushing Behavior
Evans, R. I., Rozelle, R. M., Lasater, T. M., Dembroski, T. M., & Allen, B. P. (1968) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1968.23.3.731 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Kim, P., Sorcar, P., Um, S., Chung, H., & Lee, Y. S. (2008) · Health Education Research · doi:10.1093/her/cyn031 · Cited by 27 · cited 2× · see citing works
“S 100 I E 2: Regularly use condoms .66 34 I Y Y N R PP Y SEE S 100 I L Kim et al. (2009) .00 183 B N N N R PP N —”
Being active and impulsive: The role of goals for action and inaction in self-control
Hepler, J., Albarracín, D., McCulloch, K. C., & Noguchi, K. (2011) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-011-9263-4 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationReactions to threatening health messages
ten Hoor, G. A., Peters, G.-J., Kalagi, J., de Groot, L., Grootjans, K., Huschens, A., Köhninger, C., Kölgen, L., Pelssers, I., Schütt, T., et al. (2012) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-12-1011 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Hepler, J., Wang, W., & Albarracín, D. (2011) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-011-9267-0 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citationInternal–external locus of control as a moderator of fear appeals.
Burnett, J. J. (1981) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.66.3.390 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
KAREKLAS, I., & MUEHLING, D. D. (2014) · Journal of Consumer Affairs · doi:10.1111/joca.12039 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Some Effects of Fear-Arousing Communications on Preventive Health Behavior
Radelfinger, S. (1965) · Health Education Monographs · doi:10.1177/109019816500101901 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Hepler, J., & Albarracín, D. (2014) · Social Psychology · doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000198 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationRepression-sensitization and yielding to threatening health communications
Hill, D. J., & Gardner, G. (1980) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049538008254688 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Morris, K. L., Cooper, D., Goldenberg, J. L., Arndt, J., & Gibbons, F. X. (2014) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2014.922184 · Cited by 23 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Powell, F. A. (1965). The effect of anxiety-arousing messages when”
BackgroundThe effects of repeated exposure to graphic fear appeals on cigarette packages: A field experiment.
Dijkstra, A., & Bos, C. (2015) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/adb0000049 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Effects of Fear-Arousing Communications and Topic Importance on Attitude Change
Beck, K. H., & Davis, C. M. (1978) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.1978.9924040 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Negating the effects of fear appeals in election campaigns.
Calantone, R. J., & Warshaw, P. R. (1985) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.70.4.627 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Duke, J. C., Nonnemaker, J. M., Davis, K., Watson, K. A., & Farrelly, M. C. (2013) · American Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.4278/ajhp.120920-quan-452 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
The influence of exemplars in fear appeals on the perception of self-efficacy and message acceptance
Hoeken, H., & Geurts, D. (2005) · Information Design Journal · doi:10.1075/idjdd.13.3.09hoe · Cited by 18 · cited 5× · see citing works
“09hoe Horowitz, I. A. (1969). Effects of volunteering, fear arousal, and number of communications on attitude change.”
BackgroundInfluentialJanssens, W., & Pelsmacker, P. D. (2007) · Psychologica Belgica · doi:10.5334/pb-47-3-173 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Effects of the volunteer subject, choice, and fear arousal on attitude change
Horowitz, I. A., & Gumenik, W. E. (1970) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(70)90064-8 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Attitudinal and Behavioral Reactions to Fear-Arousing Communications
Ramírez, A., & Lasater, T. M. (1976) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1976.38.3.811 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Hendrick, C., Giesen, M., & Borden, R. J. (1975) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1975.tb00702.x · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-Reports of Reactions to Fear-Arousing Information
Robbins, P. R. (1962) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1962.11.3.761 · Cited by 16 · cited 1× · see citing works
“" ; Siero et al., 1984), whereas a message low in depicted susceptibility does not personalize risk (e.g., " One of fourteen women is destined to develop breast cancer during her life.”
BackgroundStark, E. N., Kim, A., Miller, C., et al. (2008) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2007.00305.x · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Advertising and Road Safety: A Segmentation Approach
Tay, R., Ozanne, L. K., & Jati, S. (2000) · QUT ePrints (Queensland University of Technology) · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Does a Credible Source Also Need a Fearful Audience?
Umeh, K. F. (2012) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2012.00916.x · Cited by 13 · cited 1× · see citing works
“S 0 I — Umeh (2012) 1: Low credibility source .06 134 I Y Y N R D Y —”
Fear Appeals Revisited: Testing a Unique Anti-smoking Film
Schmitt, C. L., & Blass, T. (2008) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-008-9029-7 · Cited by 13 · cited 1× · see citing works
“17 25 A N Y N R PP Y SEH S 57 I — Shelton and Rogers (1981) 1: Low empathy .”
BackgroundEnhancing flossing compliance in college freshmen.
Jg, B., & Kg, L. (1993) · PubMed · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Learned helplessness and depression among Israeli women.
Rosenbaum, M., & Shichman, S. (1979) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/1097-4679(197904)35:2 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Effects of Risk-Focused and Recommendation-Focused Mental Imagery on Occupational Risk Communication
Welbourne, J. L., Hartley, T. A., Ott, S. D., et al. (2008) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410230802342168 · Cited by 8 · cited 1× · see citing works
“I — Welbourne et al. (2008) .00 308 A N Y N R PP Y —”
Promoting child passenger safety in children served by a health maintenance organization
Chang, A., Hearey, C. D., Gallagher, K. D., et al. (1989) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/0738-3991(89)90023-2 · Cited by 7 · cited 1× · see citing works
“We coded whether the recommended behaviors concerned one-time-only instances (e.g., signing up for a stress management training; Das et al., 2003) or would need to be enacted over an extended period of time (e.g., regularly using child safety devices when traveling by car; Chang et al., 1989).”
Umeh, K. F., & Stanley, S.-J. (2007) · Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9861.2005.tb00011.x · Cited by 7 · cited 1× · see citing works
“I L Umeh and Stanley (2005) Ϫ.04 100 I Y Y N R PP N —”
Quand l’engagement précède l’appel à la peur : une forme de communication engageante
Priolo, D., & Milhabet, I. (2008) · L’Année psychologique · doi:10.4074/s0003503308002029 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Stimulating dental attendance in the Netherlands: comparison of three conceptual frameworks
ter Horst, G., Hoogstraten, J., & de Haan, W. (1985) · Community Dentistry And Oral Epidemiology · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0528.1985.tb00428.x · Cited by 5 · cited 1× · see citing works
“08 27 I N Y N R PP Y SEH S 0 C — 3: Study 2, low driving-related self- esteem Ϫ.76 27 B N Y N R PP Y SEE S 0 C — 4: Study 2, high driving-related self- esteem .20 28 B N Y N R PP Y SEH S 0 C — ter Horst et al. (1985) Ϫ. 12 107 B Y Y Y O PP N —”
BackgroundVenkatesan, A. M. (2010) · Rutgers University Community Repository (Rutgers University) · doi:10.7282/t3251j7k · Cited by 4 · cited 1× · see citing works
“S 100 I — Venkatesan (2010) 3.01 72 A Y N Y O PP N —”
InfluentialEFFECTS OF FEAR AROUSAL, SEX AND ANXIETY PREDISPOSITION OF SUBJECTS ON ATTITUDE CHANGE
Fukada, H. (1973) · THE JAPANESE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY · doi:10.2130/jjesp.13.40 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Fukada, H. (1975) · THE JAPANESE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY · doi:10.2130/jjesp.15.12 · Cited by 2 · cited 1× · see citing works
“For each article, we coded if the recommended behavior was a detection behavior (e.g., getting tested for syphilis; Fukada, 1975) or a prevention/promotion behavior (e.g., attending a training to prevent repetitive stress injury; Pengchit, 2010 ).”
MethodPERSUASION FACILITATING EFFECTS UNDER IRRELEVANT FEAR-AROUSING SITUATIONS
Fukada, H. (1983) · THE JAPANESE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY · doi:10.2130/jjesp.23.83 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
EFFECTS OF FEAR-AROUSING COMMUNICATIONS ON RESISTANCE TO SUBSEQUENT COUNTERPROPAGANDA
Fukada, H. (1988) · THE JAPANESE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY · doi:10.2130/jjesp.27.149 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Rosenthal, L. H. (2023) · Scholarworks (University of Massachusetts Amherst) · doi:10.7275/10994888 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 203 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its resistance to correction
Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., Schmid, P., Fazio, L. K., Brashier, N., Kendeou, P., Vraga, E. K., & Amazeen, M. A. (2022) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-021-00006-y · Cited by 1,372 · see citing works
Leventhal, H., Phillips, L. A., & Burns, E. (2016) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-016-9782-2 · Cited by 1,350 · see citing works
“As the level of fear was irrelevant, it appeared that the representation of the threat, not the momentary affective component, was critical for action when combined with the plan (Leventhal, 1970; Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
Increasing Vaccination: Putting Psychological Science Into Action
Brewer, N. T., Chapman, G. B., Rothman, A. J., Leask, J., & Kempe, A. (2017) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100618760521 · Cited by 1,233 · see citing works
“people experience both heightened fear and a feeling of efficacy for taking action to ameliorate the threat (Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
BackgroundClimate Endgame: Exploring catastrophic climate change scenarios
Kemp, L., Xu, C., Depledge, J. J., Ebi, K. L., Gibbins, G., Kohler, T. A., Rockström, J., Scheffer, M., Schellnhuber, H. J., Steffen, W., et al. (2022) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2108146119 · Cited by 799 · see citing works
Chou, W. S., & Budenz, A. (2020) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2020.1838096 · Cited by 673 · see citing works
Framing Climate Change: Exploring the Role of Emotion in Generating Advocacy Behavior
Nabi, R. L., Gustafson, A., & Jensen, R. (2018) · Science Communication · doi:10.1177/1075547018776019 · Cited by 461 · see citing works
“…meta-analytic investigations of fear appeal research, which support a positive linear relationship between fear and persuasive outcomes generally (Tannenbaum et al., 2015; Witte & Allen, 2000), though there is strong evidence that fear can generate maladaptive message responses, such as…”
BackgroundAlbarracín, D., & Shavitt, S. (2017) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011911 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
“During the past few years, a synthesis of experimental research on fear appeals was conducted to demonstrate the extent to which fear could lead to attitude, intention, and behavior change (Tannenbaum et al. 2015).”
Self-citationThe Handbook of Behavior Change
Hagger, M. S., Cameron, L. D., Hamilton, K., Hankonen, N. E., & Lintunen, T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108677318 · Cited by 420 · see citing works
Effective health communication – a key factor in fighting the COVID-19 pandemic
Finset, A., Bosworth, H. B., Butow, P. N., Gulbrandsen, P., Hulsman, R. L., Pieterse, A. H., Street, R. L., Tschötschel, R., & van Weert, J. C. M. (2020) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2020.03.027 · Cited by 390 · see citing works
“Rather the opposite, fear is easier to handle when it is acknowledged [11].”
Effect of Pictorial Cigarette Pack Warnings on Changes in Smoking Behavior
Brewer, N. T., Hall, M. G., Noar, S. M., Parada, H., Stein-Seroussi, A., Bach, L., Hanley, S., & Ribisl, K. M. (2016) · JAMA Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.2621 · Cited by 322 · see citing works
What meta-analyses reveal about the replicability of psychological research.
Stanley, T. D., Carter, E. C., & Doucouliagos, H. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000169 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
Using Behavioral Science to help fight the Coronavirus
Lunn, P. D., Belton, C. A., Lavin, C., McGowan, F., Timmons, S., & Robertson, D. A. (2020) · Journal of Behavioral Public Administration · doi:10.30636/jbpa.31.147 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
“The word “unnecessary” is important here, because fear is a legitimate force that can positively influence attitudes, intentions, and behaviors (Tannenbaum et al., 2015), especially”
BackgroundTen considerations for effectively managing the COVID-19 transition
Habersaat, K. B., Betsch, C., Danchin, M. H., Sunstein, C. R., BOHM, R. M., Falk, A., Brewer, N. T., Omer, S. B., Scherzer, M., Sah, S., et al. (2020) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-020-0906-x · Cited by 300 · see citing works
Reassessing emotion in climate change communication
Chapman, D. A., Lickel, B. A., & Markowitz, E. M. (2017) · Nature Climate Change · doi:10.1038/s41558-017-0021-9 · Cited by 300 · see citing works
Chen, L., & Yang, X. (2018) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2018.1493416 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
“A number of studies have demonstrated that fear appeals can be effective in promoting individuals’ health behaviors (Tannenbaum et al., 2015; Witte & Allen, 2000).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialMisinformation lingers in memory: Failure of three pro-vaccination strategies
Pluviano, S., Watt, C., & Della Sala, S. (2017) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0181640 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
“[35] showed that fear appeals are particularly effective at positively influencing attitudes, intentions, and behaviour under specific circumstances.”
BackgroundChanging Behavior Using the Theory of Planned Behavior
Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108677318.002 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Determinants of behaviour and their efficacy as targets of behavioural change interventions
Albarracín, D., Farkhad, B. F., & Samayoa, J. A. G. (2024) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-024-00305-0 · Cited by 280 · see citing works
“Emotional appeals are commonly used to sensitize audiences to the risks of an object or event and include discussion of the threat posed by a problem or the audience’s susceptibility to it 103 .”
Self-citationUplifting Fear Appeals: Considering the Role of Hope in Fear-Based Persuasive Messages
Nabi, R. L., & Myrick, J. G. (2018) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2017.1422847 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
“This concern is especially noteworthy given the lack of relationship between fear and sun safety attitudes in both studies, in contradiction to general findings of fear appeals (Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
BackgroundResultIgnoring theory and misinterpreting evidence: the false belief in fear appeals
Kok, G., Peters, G.-J., Kessels, L. T. E., ten Hoor, G. A., & Ruiter, R. A. C. (2017) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2017.1415767 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
“Tannenbaum et al. (2015) reported on a meta-analysis of fear appeal effectiveness and theories across various behaviours.”
Background(2020) · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110420 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
“Research on public health campaigns typically examine specific emotions (Nabi et al., 2018; Ojala, 2012; Tannenbaum et al., 2015; Witte & Allen, 2000), but these approaches constrain a person's emotional experiences by limiting them to identifying with a set of discrete emotions pre-selected by the researcher.”
BackgroundThe Evolving Field of Risk Communication
Balog‐Way, D. H. P., McComas, K. A., & Besley, J. C. (2020) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/risa.13615 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
“…research (Kahneman, 2011; Loewenstein, Weber, Hsee, & Welch, 2001; Slovic et al., 2004), which strongly suggests that risk communicators should attend to the affective and emotional components of messages (also see risk perception and affect in Section 3.3) (Roeser, 2012; Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialConstant, A., Conserve, D. F., Gallopel‐Morvan, K., & Raude, J. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.579460 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
“Conversely, avoiding thinking about the COVID-19 (Umucu and Lee, 2020) somewhat limited unhealthy changes in lifestyles, probably by reducing the fear to go out.”
BackgroundFrom incremental to transformative adaptation in individual responses to climate-exacerbated hazards
Wilson, R. S., Herziger, A., Hamilton, M., & Brooks, J. S. (2020) · Nature Climate Change · doi:10.1038/s41558-020-0691-6 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Predictors of willingness to get a COVID-19 vaccine in the U.S
Kelly, B., Southwell, B. G., Mccormack, L. A., Bann, C., MacDonald, P. D. M., Frasier, A. M., Bevc, C. A., Brewer, N. T., & Squiers, L. (2021) · BMC Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1186/s12879-021-06023-9 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
“Messages that emphasize both the significant threat of this virus to people most at risk and the effectiveness of a recommended vaccine (once that is known) could help persuade those who are on the fence about vaccination [18].”
BackgroundReyes, G. P., Nandakumar, K., & Stevens, R. (2019) · Practice, progress, and proficiency in sustainability · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-7302-9.ch005 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
Public Health Messaging during the COVID-19 Pandemic and Beyond: Lessons from Communication Science
Nan, X., Iles, I. A., Yang, B. K., & Ma, Z. (2021) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2021.1994910 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
“A meta-analysis of fear appeal studies involving 248 independent samples and 27,372 participants supports the general efficacy of fear appeals as a persuasion technique (Tannenbaum et al., 2015; see also Witte & Allen, 2000).”
BackgroundRen, G., & Hong, T. (2018) · Information Processing & Management · doi:10.1016/j.ipm.2018.04.003 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
French, D., Cameron, E., Benton, J. S., Deaton, C., & Harvie, M. (2017) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12160-017-9895-z · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Skurka, C., Niederdeppe, J., Romero‐Canyas, R., & Acup, D. (2018) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1093/joc/jqx008 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Winter, T. J., Riordan, B. C., Pakpour, A. H., Griffiths, M. D., Mason, A., Poulgrain, J. W., & Scarf, D. (2020) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-020-00342-9 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
“To assess whether participants abided by New Zealand’s lockdown rules, participants were asked to indicate from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) whether they abided by the five rules (e.g., “I ensure I maintain the 2-meter rule when out in public”) (Table 3).”
BackgroundInfluentialFear of COVID 19 Infection Across Different Cohorts: A Scoping Review
Quadros, S., Garg, S., Ranjan, R., Vijayasarathi, G., & Mamun, M. A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.708430 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Can Emotions Capture the Elusive Gain-Loss Framing Effect? A Meta-Analysis
Nabi, R. L., Walter, N., Oshidary, N., Endacott, C. G., Love‐Nichols, J., Lew, Z., & Aune, A. (2019) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/0093650219861256 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Efficacy, Action, and Support for Reducing Climate Change Risks
Bostrom, A., Hayes, A. L., & Crosman, K. M. (2018) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/risa.13210 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
“Consistent with EPPM, we find that concern is positively associated with both efficacy and perceived harms.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialInfluencing climate change attitudes in the United States: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Rode, J. B., Dent, A. L., Benedict, C. N., Brosnahan, D., Martinez, R. L., & Ditto, P. H. (2021) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101623 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Fall, E., Izaute, M., & Chakroun, N. (2017) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2017.1401623 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
“According to fear appeal theory (Tannenbaum et al., 2015), it would seem that the threat introduced by the ‘susceptibility’ HBM concept was not enough to prompt action, maybe because the recommended solution (influenza vaccination) was not sufficiently obvious or accessible for students.”
BackgroundChanging Behavior Using the Model of Action Phases
Keller, L., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Sheeran, P. (2020) · The Handbook of Behavior Change · doi:10.1017/9781108677318.006 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Contact-tracing apps and alienation in the age of COVID-19
Rowe, F., Ngwenyama, O. K., & Richet, J. (2020) · European Journal of Information Systems · doi:10.1080/0960085x.2020.1803155 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Hamann, K. R. S., Wullenkord, M. C., Reese, G., & van Zomeren, M. (2023) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/10888683231178056 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
“…of the effects of fear appeals on behavior, indicating that fear appeals increase problem-focused behavior when efficacy is high (see Jugert et al., 2016; Tannenbaum et al., 2015; Witte & Allen, 2000) and decrease it when efficacy is low as part of a defensive response (Witte & Allen, 2000).”
BackgroundThe Future of Fentanyl and Other Synthetic Opioids
Pardo, B., Taylor, J., Caulkins, J. P., Kilmer, B., Reuter, P. H., & Stein, B. D. (2019) · RAND Corporation eBooks · doi:10.7249/rr3117 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Stroebe, W., vanDellen, M. R., Abakoumkin, G., Lemay, E. P., Schiavone, W. M., Agostini, M., Bélanger, J. J., Gützkow, B., Kreienkamp, J., Reitsema, A. M., et al. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0256740 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
“Two large meta-analyses on the effectiveness of fear-arousing communications have provided empirical support for the role of perceived threat and perceived behavioral effectiveness in predicting health behaviors from both experimental and observational studies [4, 9].”
BackgroundGuidelines for communicating about bats to prevent persecution in the time of COVID-19
MacFarlane, D., & Rocha, R. (2020) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108650 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
“the real health-risks arising from such behaviours (Lu et al., 2016; Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
Chan, M. S., Winneg, K. M., Hawkins, L., Farhadloo, M., Jamieson, K. H., & Albarracín, D. (2018) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.07.007 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
“A fear appeal refers to a persuasive message intended to arouse danger or threat perceptions to facilitate preventive motivation and protective behaviors (Earl et al., 2009; Rogers and Deckner, 1975; Tannenbaum et al., 2015) .”
Self-citationThe contagion of mortality: A terror management health model for pandemics
Courtney, E. P., Goldenberg, J. L., & Boyd, P. (2020) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12392 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
“…defences, as defined by the TMHM, mirror behavioural health responses investigated in the context of research on fear appeals (e.g., Hunt & Shehryar, 2011), converging with the TMHM to predict responses to personally relevant, fear-arousing threats (e.g., mortality; see Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
BackgroundChen, L., Wang, X., & Peng, T. (2018) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/11515 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Ettinger, J., Walton, P., Painter, J., & DiBlasi, T. (2021) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-021-02975-8 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
“This was an important first step in the analysis because, as Witte (1992) describes, fear appeal studies should examine whether their messages evoked their intended emotional responses.”
BackgroundMessage Framing in Vaccine Communication: A Systematic Review of Published Literature
Penţa, M. A., & Băban, A. (2017) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2016.1266574 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
“video, online or through some other new media technologies? This question was also raised for fear appeals (Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
BackgroundMah, A., Chapman, D. A., Markowitz, E., & Lickel, B. (2020) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102282 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Persuasion, Emotion, and Language: The Intent to Persuade Transforms Language via Emotionality
Rocklage, M. D., Rucker, D. D., & Nordgren, L. F. (2018) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797617744797 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
“For example, the elicitation of fear can increase persuasion ( Janis & Feshbach, 1953; Sternthal & Craig, 1974; Tannenbaum et al., 2015), and models of persuasion, such as the elaborationlikelihood model (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986), have been used to predict and demonstrate that both positive and negative emotions enhanc…”
MethodToward A Bifurcated Theory of Emotional Deterrence
Pickett, J. T., Roche, S. P., & Pogarsky, G. (2018) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12153 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Perseverative Cognition and Health Behaviors: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Clancy, F., Prestwich, A., Caperon, L., & O'Connor, D. B. (2016) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2016.00534 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“It might also be that worry, triggered by fear-appeals, has the capacity to promote some health behaviors, thereby, contributing to the observed mixed findings (Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
ResultLove or Loss: Effective message framing to promote environmental conservation
Jacobson, S. K., Morales, N. A., Chen, B., Soodeen, R., Moulton, M. P., & Jain, E. (2018) · Applied Environmental Education & Communication · doi:10.1080/1533015x.2018.1456380 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
“However, messages that focus on dismal information, such as the increasing number of species facing extinction or catastrophic impacts of climate change (Ceballos et al., 2015; IPCC, 2014), may actually discourage positive behavior change and action (CRED, 2009; Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
BackgroundHavnes, I. A., Jørstad, M. L., Innerdal, I., & Bjørnebekk, A. (2020) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.102876 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
A Priest, a Rabbi, and a Minister Walk into a Bar: A Meta-Analysis of Humor Effects on Persuasion
Walter, N., Cody, M. J., Xu, L. Z., & Murphy, S. T. (2018) · Human Communication Research · doi:10.1093/hcr/hqy005 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Nikopoulou, V. A., Holeva, V., Parlapani, E., Karamouzi, P., Voitsidis, P., Porfyri, G.-N., Blekas, A., Papigkioti, K., Patsiala, S., & Diakogiannis, I. (2020) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-020-00414-w · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Changing Behavior Using the Health Action Process Approach
Schwarzer, R., & Hamilton, K. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108677318.007 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Hopium or empowering hope? A meta-analysis of hope and climate engagement
Geiger, N., Dwyer, T. F., & Swim, J. K. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1139427 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Zombie leadership: Dead ideas that still walk among us
Haslam, S. A., Alvesson, M., & Reicher, S. D. (2024) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2023.101770 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
The Effectiveness of Abstract Versus Concrete Fear Appeals in Information Security
Schuetz, S. W., Lowry, P. B., Pienta, D., & Thatcher, J. B. (2020) · Journal of Management Information Systems · doi:10.1080/07421222.2020.1790187 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Climate Change Helplessness and the (De)moralization of Individual Energy Behavior
Salomon, E., Preston, J., & Tannenbaum, M. B. (2017) · Journal of experimental psychology. Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000105 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“Efficacy and fear are effective individually (e.g., Bandura, 1982; Leventhal, Watts, & Pagano, 1967), but together, fear of negative outcomes and the efficacy to prevent them are a particularly powerful combination in motivating behavioral change (Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
BackgroundSelf-citationFinnegan, W. (2022) · Environmental Education Research · doi:10.1080/13504622.2022.2120963 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“Studies of public health campaigns utilising fear appeals have identified an important relationship between threat and efficacy when it comes to message effectiveness, and this may also be true of emotionally-mediated climate education (Peters, Ruiter, and Kok 2013; Tannenbaum et al. 2015).”
BackgroundCunningham, M. R., & Baumeister, R. F. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01639 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
“Published experiments comprised 66.3% (411/620) of their population of studies and unpublished studies comprised 33.7%.”
MethodInfluentialGeiger, N., Swim, J. K., Gasper, K., Fraser, J., & Flinner, K. (2021) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101649 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Hamilton, K., Price, S., Keech, J. J., Peden, A. E., & Hagger, M. S. (2017) · International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction · doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2017.12.013 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“efficacy messages built into the campaigns are most effective in addressing behaviours that are less common (Tannenbaum et al., 2015; Wakefield et al., 2010), such as avoiding driving through floodwater.”
BackgroundThe Psychology of Framing: How Everyday Language Shapes the Way We Think, Feel, and Act
Flusberg, S. J., Holmes, K. J., Thibodeau, P. H., Nabi, R. L., & Matlock, T. (2024) · Gothic.net · doi:10.1177/15291006241246966 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
What arguments on vaccinations run through YouTube videos in Italy? A content analysis
Covolo, L., Ceretti, E., Passeri, C., Boletti, M., & Gelatti, U. (2017) · Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/21645515.2017.1306159 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“A large meta-analysis showed that fear appeal was effective in influencing attitudes, intentions and behaviors in different health communication contexts.(31) However, a recent randomized trial(32) showed that different interventions, some based on narrative and images of dramatic consequences of measles on children,…”
BackgroundMorss, R. E., Cuite, C. L., Demuth, J. L., Hallman, W. K., & Shwom, R. (2018) · International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction · doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2018.01.023 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“329; see also [18]) or, more briefly, “threatening or fear-arousing persuasive messages” ([17], p.”
Maina, B. W., Ushie, B. A., & Kabiru, C. W. (2020) · Reproductive Health · doi:10.1186/s12978-020-00938-3 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“On the contrary, a meta-analysis of fear appeal effectiveness found that instilling fear was an effective strategy at positively influencing attitude, intentions, and behaviours [44].”
BackgroundSharot, T., Rollwage, M., Sunstein, C. R., & Fleming, S. M. (2022) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916221082967 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“We further speculate that when fear appeals work (Tannenbaum et al., 2015), it is because they can generate positive internal-and external-belief outcomes.”
BackgroundSiciliani, L., Wild, C., McKee, M., Kringos, D. S., Barry, M. M., Barros, P. P., Maeseneer, J. D., Murauskienė, L., & Ricciardi, W. (2020) · Health Policy · doi:10.1016/j.healthpol.2020.02.015 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“Finally, it may be possible to use fear appeals selectively, but only when designed to promote positive emotions, including a powerful message.[40]”
BackgroundThe Role of Guilt in Influencing Sustainable Pro-Environmental Behaviors among Shoppers
Muralidharan, S., & Sheehan, K. B. (2017) · Journal of Advertising Research · doi:10.2501/jar-2017-029 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Alshurideh, M. T., Kurdi, B. H. A., Hussien, A. A., & Alshaar, H. (2017) · Journal of Marketing Communications · doi:10.1080/13527266.2017.1322126 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“It was used to change behaviours such as smoking (Sutton and Eiser 1984; Leventhal and Watts 1966), safety of driving (Tannenbaum et al. 2015), alcohol and drug abuse (King and Reid 1990; Treise and Schumann 1992) and recently the unsafe sexual practices associated with the transmission of AIDS…”
MethodTV News and COVID-19: Media Influence on Healthy Behavior in Public Spaces
Scopelliti, M., Pacilli, M. G., & Aquino, A. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18041879 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Riet, J. V. ‘., Cox, A. D., Cox, D. S., Zimet, G. D., de Bruijn, G., van den Putte, B., de Vries, H., Werrij, M. Q., & Ruiter, R. A. C. (2016) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2016.1176865 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“Although different health behaviours are very hard to compare, meta-analyses can go some way to rectifying this problem by synthesising the results for a large number of different prevention and detection behaviours (e.g., Peters, Ruiter, & Kok, 2013; Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
BackgroundHogg, T. L., Stanley, S. K., O’Brien, L. V., Watsford, C. R., & Walker, I. A. (2024) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2024.102249 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Kassavou, A., & Sutton, S. R. (2017) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2017.1365617 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“and perceived response efficacy or if the intervention messages include efficacy statements (Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
Jung, H., & Albarracín, D. (2020) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2007538118 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Self-citationAnsari‐Moghaddam, A., Seraji, M., Sharafi, Z., et al. (2021) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-021-11134-8 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Protection Motivation Theory in Information Systems Security Research
Haag, S., Siponen, M. T., & Liu, F. (2021) · ACM SIGMIS Database the DATABASE for Advances in Information Systems · doi:10.1145/3462766.3462770 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Olsen, S. J., Schirmer, H., Wilsgaard, T., Bønaa, K. H., & Hanssen, T. A. (2018) · European Journal of Preventive Cardiology · doi:10.1177/2047487318778088 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Perry, S. L. (2023) · Sociological Theory · doi:10.1177/07352751231153664 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“Flowing from this, the second stable condition is that voter persuasion in competitive races is heavily tied to identity and emotion, specifically anger and fear (Achen and Bartels 2016; Huddy, Mason, and Aarøe 2015; Tannenbaum et al. 2015; Valentino et al. 2011; Weber 2013).”
BackgroundReyes, G. P., Nandakumar, K., & Stevens, R. (2022) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-5678-1.ch064 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Self- and Response Efficacy Information in Fear Appeals: A Meta-Analysis
Bigsby, E., & Albarracín, D. (2022) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1093/joc/jqab048 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“…Dillard, Plotnick, Godbold, Freimuth, & Edgar, 1996; Witte, 1992) have examined extant theories that predict persuasive success or failure (Tannenbaum et al., 2015), common message moderators (de Hoog, Stroebe, & de Wit, 2007; Earl & Albarracín, 2007; Peters, Ruiter, & Kok, 2013; Sutton,…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationUnderstanding media publics and the antimicrobial resistance crisis
Davis, M., Whittaker, A. M., Lindgren, M., et al. (2017) · Global Public Health · doi:10.1080/17441692.2017.1336248 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“AMR is frightening – an effect on which the news media relies in its use of ‘superbugs’ – and this use of fear may increase avoidance of AMR messages (Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
BackgroundTesting a novel multicomponent intervention to reduce meat consumption in young men
Amiot, C. E., Boutros, G. E. H., Sukhanova, K., & Karelis, A. D. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0204590 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Rossen, I., Hurlstone, M. J., & Lawrence, C. M. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01483 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“Themost recent and comprehensive meta-analytic assessment of the fear appeal literature concluded that fear appeals do work (Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
BackgroundSecondary Risk Theory: Validation of a Novel Model of Protection Motivation
Cummings, C. L., Rosenthal, S., & Kong, W. Y. (2020) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/risa.13573 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“Fear appeals can be highly effective in influencing attitudes, intentions, and behaviors (Tannenbaum et al., 2015), and are a common message strategy in health and risk communication.”
BackgroundDrummond, A., Hall, L. C., Sauer, J. D., & Palmer, M. A. (2018) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-018-2230-2 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“Although fear can be an effective persuasion tool (Tannenbaum et al. 2015), message content, prompting strong fear reactions combined with a low degree of personal efficacy for action, can result in defensive responses that undermine message effectiveness (Witte and Allen 2000).”
BackgroundOrt, A., & Fahr, A. (2018) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjhp.12310 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Abrams, K. M., Leong, K. M., Melena, S., & Teel, T. L. (2019) · Environmental Communication · doi:10.1080/17524032.2019.1649291 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Health Risk Perception and Risk Communication
Schmälzle, R., Renner, B., & Schupp, H. T. (2017) · Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1177/2372732217720223 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“While many factors contribute to the effectiveness of mass media health messages, a core ingredient of effective campaigns is their ability to address recipients in a personal and motivationally relevant way (Burnkrant & Unnava, 1995; Dillard & Peck, 2000; Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
BackgroundWhite, B. X., & Albarracín, D. (2018) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2018.1448292 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“2 Kok and colleagues cite a meta-analysis conducted by Tannenbaum et al. (2015).”
InfluentialSelf-citationWhere Health and Death Intersect
Arndt, J., & Goldenberg, J. L. (2017) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721416689563 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“Notably, there are differing views about the potential of the TMHM to inform research on the use of persuasive fear messages (see Hunt & Shehryar, 2011; Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
BackgroundJansen, J., & van Schaik, P. (2018) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2018.10.004 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“In addition, stronger results might have been found if one-off behaviour was investigated, such as installing anti-virus software, than repeated behaviours such as in our study (Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
Xiao, W. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.600826 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
A (Re)defining moment for fear appeals: a comment on Kok et al. (2018)
Roberto, A. J., Mongeau, P. A., & Liu, Y. (2018) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2018.1445546 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“…Witte & Allen, 2000) – including smoking behaviour (Sheeran et al., 2014) – fear appeals that include both threat and efficacy components have larger effects on behaviour than threatening communication alone (Peters et al., 2013; Sheeran et al., 2014; Tannenbaum, 2015; Tannenbaum et al., 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialLang, R., Benham, J. L., Atabati, O., Hollis, A., Tombe, T., Shaffer, B., Burns, K. K., MacKean, G., Léveillé, T., McCormack, B., et al. (2021) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-021-10790-0 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“Marketing campaigns that increase concern for COVID-19 may be effective in increasing uptake of public health behaviours; however, this will require a fine balance as to not promote fear appeal, which is a controversial method of promoting behaviour change [16, 34, 35].”
BackgroundEder, S. J., Steyrl, D., Stefańczyk, M., Pieniak, M., Molina, J. M., Pešout, O., Binter, J., Smela, P., Scharnowski, F., & Nicholson, A. A. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0247997 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“These results highlight that inter-individual factors significantly contribute to a population’s fears of the novel coronavirus (SarsCoV-2), and support previous work calling attention to the ‘audience’ when investigating and designing behavioral interventions based on fear appeal [5].”
BackgroundO’Keefe, D. J., & Hoeken, H. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.664160 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Vulturius, G., André, K., Swartling, Å. G., et al. (2017) · Regional Environmental Change · doi:10.1007/s10113-017-1218-1 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Much of the contemporary scientific literature about climate change adaptation focuses on structural factors that determine the capacity of society and its institutions to adapt to climate change impacts (Brooks et al. 2005; Füssel and Klein 2006; Tinch et al. 2015).”
Background
- Authors
- Tannenbaum, M. B., Hepler, J., Zimmerman, R. S., Saul, L., Jacobs, S., Wilson, K., & Albarracín, D.
- Affiliations
- University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
- University of Nevada, Reno (US)
- University of Missouri–St. Louis (US)
- Virginia Commonwealth University (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2015-11
- Volume
- 141
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1178-1204
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- PMC
- PMC5789790
- OpenAlex
- W2238586764
- Semantic Scholar
- 7940c739aafad42be93bddeda83667a658986963
- Cited by
- 1,203
- References
- 203
- Citations by year
- 2026: 104 · 2025: 117 · 2024: 124 · 2023: 115 · 2022: 129 · 2021: 188 · 2020: 195 · 2019: 71 · 2018: 73 · 2017: 44 · 2016: 20 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 7.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (submittedVersion)
- Illinois Digital Environment for Access to Learning and Scholarship (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Sponsor name not included (R01 MH094241, R01 NR08325, and R56 AI114501)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Keywords
- fear appeals, attitude change, behavioral intention, risk communication, perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, message framing
- MeSH terms
- Attitude, Behavior, Fear, Female, Humans
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-09-28.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-09-28.
Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
