Depressive Symptoms in Third-Grade Teachers: Relations to Classroom Quality and Student Achievement
Open accessAbstract
This study investigated associations among third-grade teachers' (N = 27) symptoms of depression, quality of the classroom-learning environment (CLE), and students' (N = 523, Mage = 8.6 years) math and literacy performance. teachers' depressive symptoms in the winter negatively predicted students' spring mathematics achievement. This depended on students' fall mathematics scores; students who began the year with weaker math skills and were in classrooms where teachers reported more depressive symptoms achieved smaller gains than did peers whose teachers reported fewer symptoms. teachers' depressive symptoms were negatively associated with quality of CLE, and quality of CLE mediated the association between depressive symptoms and student achievement. The findings point to the importance of teachers' mental health, with implications for policy and practice.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Newer findings indicate that instructional quality and student responsiveness might mediate how teacher mental health affects student outcomes.
“Emerging evidence suggests that teacher behavior (teaching quality) and student engagement (learning responsiveness) – two consequential factors of burnout within Maslach and Leiter’s model – may mediate the effect of teacher mental health on student outcomes (Klusmann et al., 2008; Hakanen et al., 2006; McLean & Connor, 2015).”
From Too Stressed to Teach? Teaching Quality, Student Engagement, and IEP Outcomes (2017) · cites this paper as McLean & Connor, 2015
The Discussion reports that classroom-learning-environment quality mediated the relation between teachers’ depressive symptoms and students’ math achievement. The Methods describe that measure as including instructional practices and teacher responsiveness, but the paper does not identify student engagement or learning responsiveness as a separate mediator. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn McLean and Connor's work, teacher depression symptoms showed negative associations with instructional quality and math achievement.
“Using depressive symptoms as a proxy for burnout and stress, McLean and Connor found that teachers’ depressive symptoms were negatively correlated with teaching quality and student achievement in math.”
From Too Stressed to Teach? Teaching Quality, Student Engagement, and IEP Outcomes (2017) · cites this paper as McLean and Connor, 2015
The Results report a negative correlation between teachers’ depressive symptoms and classroom-learning-environment quality. They also report weaker math gains for students who began the year with weaker math skills, but not a general negative correlation with math achievement: the teacher-depression main effect in Table 4 was not significant. The citing sentence omits that condition. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPrior literature describes burnout as indirectly harming student learning by increasing attrition.
“The existing literature has described burnout as having an indirect negative influence on student learning through its effect on attrition.”
From Too Stressed to Teach? Teaching Quality, Student Engagement, and IEP Outcomes (2017) · cites this paper as McLean & Connor, 2015
The Discussion’s Theoretical and Practical Implications section says emotional stress is a primary reason teachers leave the profession. The Discussion also links teachers’ depressive symptoms to weaker student math achievement, but identifies classroom quality—not attrition—as the mediator. The paper does not establish the claimed burnout → attrition → student learning pathway; page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredStressed or burned-out teachers are more likely to quit, which can destabilize and lower the quality of the teaching workforce and may harm student learning.
“Teachers who are stressed or experience burnout are more likely to leave school, leading to an unstable and potentially lower quality teaching workforce, which in turn may negatively influence student learning”
From Too Stressed to Teach? Teaching Quality, Student Engagement, and IEP Outcomes (2017) · cites this paper as McLean & Connor, 2015
The Discussion’s Theoretical and Practical Implications section (page unavailable) identifies emotional stress and poor emotion management as reasons teachers leave the profession. The Discussion also links teachers’ depressive symptoms to lower classroom quality and weaker student math achievement. It does not establish the claimed chain in which burnout or stress leads to turnover, an unstable or lower-quality teaching workforce, and harm to student learning. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
The Bioecological Model of Human Development
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (2007) · Handbook of Child Psychology · doi:10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0114 · Cited by 5,760 · see citing works
Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2009) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654308325693 · Cited by 3,686 · see citing works
An appraisal perspective of teacher burnout: Examining the emotional work of teachers
Chang, M.-L. (2009) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-009-9106-y · Cited by 1,349 · see citing works
A Meta-Analysis for Exploring the Diverse Causes and Effects of Stress in Teachers
Montgomery, C., & Rupp, A. A. (2005) · Canadian Journal of Education / Revue canadienne de l'éducation · doi:10.2307/4126479 · Cited by 688 · see citing works
Jennings, P. A., Frank, J. L., Snowberg, K. E., Coccia, M. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2013) · School Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1037/spq0000035 · Cited by 672 · see citing works
Roeser, R. W., Skinner, E., Beers, J., & Jennings, P. A. (2012) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00238.x · Cited by 525 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 36
- American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: Author.
- Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator‐mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173– 1182. doi: 10.1037/0022‐3514.51.6.1173 3806354 · DOI · Paper page
- Beilock, S. L., Gunderson, E. A., Ramirez, G., & Levine, S. C. (2010). Female teachers' math anxiety affects girls' math achievement. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107, 1860– 1863. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0910967107 20133834 PMC2836676 · DOI
- Connor, C. M., Morrison, F. J., Fishman, B., Crowe, E. C., Al Otaiba, S., & Schatschneider, C. (2013). A longitudinal cluster‐randomized control study on the accumulating effects of individualized literacy instruction on students' reading from 1st through 3rd grade. Psychological Science, 24, 1408– 1419. doi: 10.1177/0956797612472204 23785038 PMC4737583 · DOI
- Connor, C. M. D., Morrison, F. J., Schatschneider, C., Toste, J., Lundblom, E. G., Crowe, E., & Fishman, B. (2011). Effective classroom instruction: Implications of child characteristic by instruction interactions on first graders' word reading achievement. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 4, 173– 207. doi: 10.1080/19345747.2010.510179 22229058 PMC3251831 · DOI
- Connor, C. M., Ponitz, C. E. C., Phillips, B., Travis, Q. M., Day, S. G., & Morrison, F. J. (2010). First graders' literacy and self‐regulation gains: The effect of individualizing instruction. Journal of School Psychology, 48, 433– 455. doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2010.06.003 20728691 PMC2976978 · DOI
- Connor, C. M., Spencer, M., Day, S. L., Giuliani, S., Ingebrand, S. W., & Morrison, F. J. (2014). Capturing the complexity: Content, type, and amount of instruction and quality of the classroom learning environment synergistically predict third graders' vocabulary and reading comprehension outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106, 762– 778. doi: 10.1037/a0035921 25400293 PMC4229844 · DOI · Paper page
- Eccles, J. S., & Roeser, R. (1999). School and community influences on human development In Bornstein M. H. & Lamb M. E. (Eds.), Developmental psychology: An advanced textbook (4th ed., pp. 503– 554). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
- Hamre, B. K., & Pianta, R. C. (2004). Self‐reported depression in nonfamilial caregivers: Prevalence and associations with caregiver behavior in child‐care settings. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 19, 297– 318. doi: 10.1016/j.ecresq.2004.04.006 · DOI
- Hamre, B. K., & Pianta, R. C. (2005). Can instructional and emotional support in the first‐grade classroom make a difference for children at risk of school failure? Child Development, 76, 949– 967. doi: 10.1111/j.1467‐8624.2005.00889.x 16149994 · DOI · Paper page
- Hamre, B. K., & Pianta, R. C. (2007). Learning opportunities in pre‐school and early elementary class‐rooms In R. C. Pianta, Cox M. J., & Snow K. L. (Eds.), School readiness and the transition to kindergarten in the era of accountability (pp. 49– 84). Baltimore, MD: Brookes.
- Hamre, B. K., Pianta, R. C., Downer, J. T., & Mashburn, A. J. (2008). teachers' perceptions of conflict with young students: Looking beyond problem behaviors. Social Development, 17, 115– 136. doi: 10.1111/j.1467‐9507.2007.00418.x · DOI
- Jeon, L., Buettner, C. K., & Snyder, A. R. (2014). Pathways from teacher depression and child‐care quality to child behavioral problems. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 82, 225– 235. doi: 10.1037/a0035720 24447005 · DOI
- Johnson, S., Cooper, C., Cartwright, S., Donald, I., Taylor, P., & Millet, C. (2005). The experience of work‐related stress across occupations. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 20, 178– 187. doi: 10.1108/02683940510579803 · DOI · Paper page
- Landis, J. R., & Koch, G. G. (1977). The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics, 33, 159– 174. 843571
- La Paro, K. M., & Pianta, R. C. (2003). CLASS: Classroom Assessment Scoring System. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.
- Li‐Grining, C., Raver, C. C., Champion, K., Sardin, L., Metzger, M. W., & Jones, S. M. (2010). Understanding and improving classroom emotional climate in the “real world”: The role of teachers' psychosocial stressors. Early Education and Development, 21, 65– 94. doi: 10.1080/10409280902783509 · DOI
- Loeb, S., Darling‐Hammond, L., & Luczak, J. (2005). How teaching conditions predict teacher turnover in California schools. Peabody Journal of Education, 80, 44? 70. doi: 10.1207/s15327930pje8003_4 · DOI
- Mashburn, A. J., Hamre, B. K., Downer, J. T., & Pianta, R. C. (2006). Teacher and classroom characteristics associated with teachers' ratings of prekindergartners' relationships and behaviors. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 24, 367– 380. doi: 10.1177/0734282906290594 · DOI
- Murray, L., & Cooper, P. J. (1997). Effects of postnatal depression on infant development. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 77, 99– 101. doi: 10.1136/adc.77.2.99 9301345 PMC1717268 · DOI
- NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2007). Age of entry to kindergarten and children's academic and socioemotional development. Early Education and Development, 18, 337– 368. doi: 10.1080/10409280701283460 18084635 PMC2140009 · DOI
- Ochs, E. (1979). Transcription as theory In Ochs E. & Schieffelin B. B. (Eds.), Developmental pragmatics (pp. 43– 72). New York, NY: Academic Press.
- O'Connor, E., & McCartney, K. (2007). Examining teacher–child relationships and achievement as part of an ecological model of development. American Educational Research Journal, 44, 340– 369. doi: 10.3102/0002831207302172 · DOI · Paper page
- Pianta, R., Howes, C., Burchinal, M. R., Bryant, D., Clifford, R., Early, D., & Barbarin, O. (2005). Features of pre‐kindergarten programs, classrooms, and teachers: Do they predict observed classroom quality and child–teacher interactions? Applied Developmental Science, 9, 144– 159. doi: 10.1207/s1532480xads0903_2 · DOI
- Ponitz, C., Rimm‐Kaufman, S. E., Grimm, K. J., & Curby, T. W. (2009). Kindergarten classroom quality, behavioral engagement, and reading achievement. School Psychology Review, 38, 102– 120.
- Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- Raver, C. C., Jones, S. M., Li‐Grining, C. P., Metzger, M., Champion, K., & Sardin, L. (2008). Improving preschool classroom processes: Preliminary findings from a randomized trial implemented in Head Start settings. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 23, 10– 26. doi: 10.1016/j.ecresq.2007.09.001 PMC2274905 18364994 · DOI
- Reynolds, A. J., & Ou, S. (2004). Alterable predictors of child well‐being in the Chicago Longitudinal Study. Children and Youth Services Review, 26, 1– 14. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2003.11.005 · DOI
- Spira, E. G., Bracken, S. S., & Fischel, J. E. (2005). Predicting improvement after first‐grade reading difficulties: The effects of oral language, emergent literacy, and behavior skills. Developmental Psychology, 41, 225– 234. doi: 10.1037/0012‐1649.41.1.225 15656751 · DOI
- Supplee, L. H., Shaw, D. S., Hailstones, K., & Hartman, K. (2004). Family and child influences on early academic and emotion regulatory behaviors. Journal of School Psychology, 42, 221– 242. doi: 10.1016/j.jsp.2004.02.001 · DOI
- Sutton, R. E. (2004). Emotion regulation goals and strategies. Social Psychology of Education, 7, 379– 398. doi: 10.1007/s11218‐004‐4229‐y · DOI
- Swartz, R. A., & McElwain, N. L. (2012). Preservice teachers' emotion‐related regulation and cognition: Associations with teachers' responses to children's emotions in early childhood classrooms. Early Education and Development, 22, 202– 226. doi: 10.1080/10409289.2012.619392 · DOI
- Ursache, A., Blair, C., & Raver, C. C. (2012). The promotion of self‐regulation as a means of enhancing school readiness and early achievement in children at risk for school failure. Child Development Perspectives, 6, 122– 128. doi: 10.1111/j.1750‐8606.2011.00209.x PMC7100892 32226480 · DOI
- Vinson, B. (2001). A comparison of pre‐service teachers' mathematics anxiety before and after a methods class emphasizing manipulatives. Early Childhood Education Journal, 29, 89– 94. doi: 10.1023/A:1012568711257 · DOI
- Whitaker, R. C., Becker, B. D., Herman, A. N., & Gooze, R. A. (2013). The physical and mental health of Head Start staff: The Pennsylvania Head Start staff wellness survey. Preventing Chronic Disease, 10, 130– 171. doi: 10.5888/pcd10.130171 PMC3816599 24176085 · DOI
- Yoshikawa, H., & Hsueh, J. A. (2001). Child development and public policy: Toward a dynamic systems perspective. Child Development, 72, 1887– 1903. doi: 10.1111/1467‐8624.00384 11768151 · DOI
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Bottiani, J. H., Duran, C. A. K., Pas, E. T., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2019) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2019.10.002 · Cited by 454 · see citing works
Collie, R. J., Shapka, J. D., Perry, N. E., & Martin, A. J. (2016) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000088 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Jennings, P. A., Doyle, S., Oh, Y., Rasheed, D., Frank, J. L., & Brown, J. L. (2019) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2019.07.009 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
Too Stressed to Teach? Teaching Quality, Student Engagement, and IEP Outcomes
Wong, V. W., Ruble, L. A., Yu, Y., & McGrew, J. H. (2017) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/0014402917690729 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
“A small study (N = 27) conducted by McLean and Connor (2015) with general education teachers is an exception.”
BackgroundHayes, R., Titheradge, D., Allen, K., Allwood, M., Byford, S., Edwards, V., Hansford, L., Longdon, B., Norman, S., Norwich, B., et al. (2020) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12284 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Hwang, Y.-S., Noh, J.-E., Medvedev, O. N., & Singh, N. N. (2019) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-019-01236-1 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Wartenberg, G., Aldrup, K., Grund, S., & Klusmann, U. (2026) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543261455273 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
- Authors
- McLean, L., & Connor, C. M.
- Affiliations
- Arizona State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- McLean, Leigh
- Venue
- Child Development
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2015-05-01
- Volume
- 86
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 945-954
- ISSN
- 0009-3920 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8624
- PMC
- PMC4428950
- OpenAlex
- W2092364087
- Cited by
- 232
- References
- 6
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 32 · 2021: 25 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 4
- FWCI
- 68.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Child Development (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Education Institute of Education Sciences (R305H04013, R305B070074)
- National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD48539, R21HD062834, P50HD052120)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Educational Environments and Student Outcomes
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Occupational Therapy › Occupational Health and Burnout
- Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
- Keywords
- third grade teachers, classroom climate, student mathematics achievement, literacy achievement, teacher mental health, academic progress, mediation, early childhood education
- MeSH terms
- Achievement, Adult, Child, Depression, Educational Measurement, Faculty, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Middle Aged, Students
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
