The DOI matches its Crossref record; 38 of the 38 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Review article: metoclopramide and tardive dyskinesia
Open accessAbstract
Summary: Background Metoclopramide is a dopamine receptor antagonist which has been used for treatment of a variety of gastrointestinal symptoms over the last thirty years. In 2009, the FDA issued a black box warning regarding long‐term or high‐dose use of this medication because of the risk of developing tardive dyskinesia. Aims To review the mechanism of action and pharmacokinetic properties of metoclopramide, the risk of metoclopramide‐induced tardive dyskinesia, potential mechanisms that may alter and to summarize the clinical context for appropriate use of the drug. Methods We conducted a PubMed search using the following key words and combined searches: metoclopramide, neuroleptics, tardive dyskinesia, incidence, prevalence, dopamine, receptors, pharmacokinetic, pharmacology, pharmacogenetics, DRD3 Ser9Gly polymorphism, cytochrome P450, p‐glycoprotein, risk factors, gastroparesis, outcome, natural history. Results Available data show that risk of tardive dyskinesia from metoclopramide use is likely to be <1%, much less than the estimated 1–10% risk previously suggested in national guidelines. Tardive dyskinesia may represent an idiosyncratic response to metoclopramide; pharmacogenetics affect pharmacokinetic and dopamine receptor pharmacodynamics in response to neuroleptic agents that cause similar neurological complications. Conclusion Community prevalence and pharmacogenetic mechanisms involved in metoclopramide‐induced tardive dyskinesia require further study to define the benefit‐risk ratio more clearly.
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“Its most serious side effect is the occurrence of extrapyramidal movement disorders, tardive dyskinesia, and akathisia in a significant number of patients (30-40%). Drowsiness, fatigue, and depression also occur frequently.”
From Gastrointestinal symptoms in postural tachycardia syndrome: a systematic review (2018) · cites this paper as [56]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“The Food and Drug Administration has a black box warning against the chronic use of metoclopramide [56].”
From Gastrointestinal symptoms in postural tachycardia syndrome: a systematic review (2018) · cites this paper as [56]
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Cites
A review of uses of health care utilization databases for epidemiologic research on therapeutics
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Risk of Tardive Dyskinesia in Older Patients
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Pawestri, H., Kurniawati, D., Dona, S., & Melviani, M. (2023) · Jurnal Farmasi Syifa · doi:10.63004/jfs.v1i2.237
“Penggunaan obat ini dianjurkan tidak boleh lebih dari 3 bulan, yang mana Pada tahun 2009 FDA mengeluarkan peringatan kotak hitam mengenai penggunaan obat ini dalam jangka panjang atau dosis tinggi karena risiko berkembangnya tardive dyskinesia (Rao & Camilleri, 2010).”
BackgroundNutrition Therapy for Diabetic Gastroparesis
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G-POEM in Belgium : a retrospective study.
Barras, J., Poncin, M., Severen, C. V., & Loly, J. (2024) · Acta gastro-enterologica Belgica · doi:10.51821/87.4.13463 · Cited by 1
Breastfeeding Counseling Practices Among Plastic Surgeons: Results From a National Survey
Bryan, J. L., Ockerman, K. M., Yang, R. L., Cox, E., Safeek, R. H., Curtin, C. M., & Sorice-Virk, S. C. (2025) · Plastic & Reconstructive Surgery Global Open · doi:10.1097/gox.0000000000006691
“37 Unfortunately, prescription galactagogues, such as dom-peridone or metoclopramide, have side effects including headaches, dry mouth, or gastrointestinal disturbances, 38 and even tardive dyskinesia, 39,40 whereas most herbal supplements have no Food and Drug Administration oversight.”
Crone, V., Møller, M. H., Granholm, A., Perner, A., Alhazzani, W. A., Al-Fares, A. A., Hästbacka, J., Ostermann, M., Pfortmueller, C. A., Ferrer, R., et al. (2025) · Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/aas.70125 · Cited by 1
“Erythromycin has been linked to gastrointestinal side effects [4], metoclopramide to neurological side effects [5], and both agents to cardiac arrhythmias, especially at higher doses or with prolonged use [3, 5, 6].”
Moving beyond promethazine: Advancing precision in antiemetic therapy
Ryan, M. F., & Lagasse, C. A. (2026) · SAGE Open Medicine · doi:10.1177/20503121261449562
Nutrition Therapy for Diabetic Gastroparesis
Hodgson, E. (2026) · American Diabetes Association eBooks · doi:10.2337/9781580408493-ch19
Use of Prokinetic Agents in Adult ICU Patients: An International Inception Cohort Study ( PATIENCE )
Crone, V., Møller, M. H., Granholm, A., Perner, A., Alhazzani, W. A., Krogsgaard, L. R., Al-Fares, A. A., Hästbacka, J., Ostermann, M., Pfortmueller, C. A., et al. (2026) · Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/aas.70290 · Cited by 1
LIANG, Z.-M., He, G., Wen-ya, P. E. I., Xin, Z. H. O. U., & Jing-wen, R. U. A. N. (2026) · 世界针灸杂志：英文版 · doi:10.1016/j.wjam.2026.06.008
BBB-Nuke: Transport-Aware Prediction of Blood-Brain Barrier Penetration in Small MoleculesPreprint
Abasciano, N., Hadipour, H., Poddar, A., Rudrum, J., & Sobodu, T. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.07.13.738280
“These CNS toxicities prompted the FDA to issue a black box warning in 2009 and have limited the drug’s clinical utility for over a decade [Rao and Camilleri, 2010].”
Dey, S., Lu, P., Wallqvist, A., & AbdulHameed, M. D. M. (2026) · Journal of Cheminformatics · doi:10.1186/s13321-026-01258-7
“However, chronic exposure to central D2 blockade is associated with tardive dyskinesia, a serious neurological movement disorder that led to the addition of an FDA Black Box Warning in 2009 [11, 12].”
Wilder, A., Morris, C., Patel, D. R., & Setya, A. (2026) · Children · doi:10.3390/children13070960
“…at approximately 0.1% per 1000 patient-years—far below the 1–10% range embedded in regulatory guidance—and identified the foundational studies underpinning the black box warning as methodologically limited by small sample sizes, older patient populations, and prolonged high-dose exposure [12,20].”
InfluentialShahzad, I., Zamir, A., Rasool, M. F., Alshamrani, A. A., Hussain, I., & Alqahtani, F. (2026) · Pharmaceuticals · doi:10.3390/ph19091482
“Moreover, due to the immature metabolic and neurological systems, infants are more vulnerable to the adverse effects of metoclopramide, suggesting dose optimization and careful monitoring [9,16].”
Störungen der Magenentleerung (Gastroparese, Dumping-Syndrom)
Keller, J. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-54676-1_335-1
Solheimsnes, A. (2015) · NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives
Metadata
- Authors
- RAO, A. S., & CAMILLERI, M.
- Affiliations
- Mayo Clinic (US)
- Corresponding author
- CAMILLERI, M.
- ORCID
- CAMILLERI, M.
- Venue
- Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2009-12-02
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 11-19
- ISSN
- 0269-2813 (ISSN-L)
- 1365-2036
- OpenAlex
- W2049233278
- Cited by
- 316
- References
- 38
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 33 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 24 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 22 · 2015: 25 · 2014: 18 · 2013: 21 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 1.18
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Schizophrenia research and treatment
- Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Pharmacology › Pharmacogenetics and Drug Metabolism
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Surgery › Nausea and vomiting management
- Keywords
- metoclopramide, tardive dyskinesia, dopamine antagonists, pharmacokinetics, pharmacogenetics, cytochrome P450, P-glycoprotein, gastroparesis, black box warning, risk factors, risk-benefit assessment
- MeSH terms
- Dyskinesia, Drug-Induced, Humans, Metoclopramide, Risk Factors, Prevalence, Odds Ratio, Dopamine Antagonists
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