Imitation in infancy: the wealth of the stimulus
Abstract
Imitation requires the imitator to solve the correspondence problem--to translate visual information from modelled action into matching motor output. It has been widely accepted for some 30 years that the correspondence problem is solved by a specialized, innate cognitive mechanism. This is the conclusion of a poverty of the stimulus argument, realized in the active intermodal matching model of imitation, which assumes that human neonates can imitate a range of body movements. An alternative, wealth of the stimulus argument, embodied in the associative sequence learning model of imitation, proposes that the correspondence problem is solved by sensorimotor learning, and that the experience necessary for this kind of learning is provided by the sociocultural environment during human development. In a detailed and wide-ranging review of research on imitation and imitation-relevant behaviour in infancy and beyond, we find substantially more evidence in favour of the wealth argument than of the poverty argument.
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To mimic a perceived action, an infant first needs to see the action and perform the contingent action contingently (close together in time).
“The principle of associative learning is that in order to be able to mimic a perceived action, an infant first needs to see the action and perform the contingent action contingently (close together in time).”
From Connecting minds and sharing emotions through mimicry: A neurocognitive model of emotional contagion (2017) · cites this paper as Ray and Heyes (2011)
Infants can learn flexibly from their own environment and are not dependent on a specialized innate cognitive mechanism.
“In contrast to the AIM model, Associative sequence learning (ASL) by Ray and Heyes (2011) proposes that infants can learn flexibly from their own environment and therefore are not dependent on a specialized 'innate cognitive mechanism'.”
From Connecting minds and sharing emotions through mimicry: A neurocognitive model of emotional contagion (2017) · cites this paper as Ray and Heyes (2011)
The experience of being imitated is fundamental for the development of imitation in humans.
“But even more crucially, the experience of being imitated is fundamental for the development of imitation in humans (Ray and Heyes, 2011).”
From Connecting minds and sharing emotions through mimicry: A neurocognitive model of emotional contagion (2017) · cites this paper as Ray and Heyes, 2011
Correlated excitation of sensory and motor neurons encoding the same property of action occurs not only when humans are imitated, but also when we observe our own actions directly or using an optical mirror, observe others during synchronous activities, and as a consequence of acquired equivalence experience.
“Correlated excitation of sensory and motor neurons encoding the same property of action occurs not only when humans are imitated, but also when we observe our own actions directly or using an optical mirror; observe others during the kind of synchronous activities involved in sports and dance training; and as a consequence of 'acquired equivalence' experience, for example, when the same sound (a w”
From Mirror neurons: from origin to function (2014) · cites this paper as Ray & Heyes, 2011
Cites
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Origins of domain specificity: The evolution of functional organization
Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (1994) · Mapping the Mind · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511752902.005 · Cited by 849 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…learning lends weight to the view that natural selection has shaped the human mind, not by producing complex, specialised cognitive ‘modules’ (e.g. Cosmides & Tooby, 1994), but by favouring relatively simple behaviour-control mechanisms that channel the effects of domain- and taxon-general…”
BackgroundMirror self-image reactions before age two
Amsterdam, B. (1972) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.420050403 · Cited by 811 · cited 1× · see citing works
“For example, Amsterdam (1972) found that 85% of infants between 6 and 12 months responded to their mirror image as a sociable playmate, smiling at and making playful approaches to the ‘other child’ while vocalizing delight and enthusiasm.”
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Exploration or imitation? The effect of music on 4-week-old infants’ tongue protrusions
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Mirror neurons: from origin to function
Cook, R., Bird, G., Catmur, C., Press, C., & Heyes, C. (2014) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x13000903 · Cited by 632 · see citing works
Self-citationConnecting minds and sharing emotions through mimicry: A neurocognitive model of emotional contagion
Prochazkova, E., & Kret, M. E. (2017) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.05.013 · Cited by 433 · see citing works
“But even more crucially, the experience of being imitated is fundamental for the development of imitation in humans (Ray and Heyes, 2011).”
InfluentialComprehensive longitudinal study challenges the existence of neonatal imitation in humans
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Simpson, E. A., Murray, L., Paukner, A., & Ferrari, P. F. (2014) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0289 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Acquisition of automatic imitation is sensitive to sensorimotor contingency.
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Self-citationLessons from infant learning for unsupervised machine learning
Zaadnoordijk, L., Besold, T. R., & Cusack, R. (2022) · Nature Machine Intelligence · doi:10.1038/s42256-022-00488-2 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
How and why people synchronize: An integrated perspective
daSilva, E. B., & Wood, A. (2025) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/10888683241252036 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
- Authors
- Ray, E., & Heyes, C.
- Affiliations
- University College London (GB)
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Heyes, Cecilia
- ORCID
- Heyes, Cecilia
- Venue
- Developmental Science
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2010-07-23
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 92-105
- ISSN
- 1363-755X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1930222993
- Cited by
- 332
- References
- 7
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 45 · 2023: 24 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 23 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 25
- FWCI
- 3.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Developmental Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Oxford University Research Archive (ORA) (University of Oxford) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Economic and Social Research Council (RES-538-28-1001)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Action Observation and Synchronization
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Social Robot Interaction and HRI
- Keywords
- imitation, infancy, correspondence problem, poverty of the stimulus, sensorimotor learning, neonatal motor development, sociocultural context
- MeSH terms
- Cognition, Humans, Imitative Behavior, Infant, Infant, Newborn, Interpersonal Relations, Learning, Movement, Visual Perception, Intention
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