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What are the learning affordances of 3‐D virtual environments?
Open accessAbstract
This article explores the potential learning benefits of three‐dimensional (3‐D) virtual learning environments (VLEs). Drawing on published research spanning two decades, it identifies a set of unique characteristics of 3‐D VLEs, which includes aspects of their representational fidelity and aspects of the learner–computer interactivity they facilitate. A review of applications of 3‐D VLEs is presented, leading to the identification of a series of learning affordances of such environments. These affordances include the facilitation of tasks that lead to enhanced spatial knowledge representation, greater opportunities for experiential learning, increased motivation/engagement, improved contextualisation of learning and richer/more effective collaborative learning as compared to tasks made possible by 2‐D alternatives. The authors contend that the continued development of and investment in 3‐D games, simulations and virtual worlds for educational purposes should be considered contingent on further investigation into the precise relationships between the unique characteristics of 3‐D VLEs and their potential learning benefits. To this end, they conclude by proposing an agenda or ‘roadmap’ for future research that encompasses empirical studies aimed at exploring these relationships, as well as those aimed at deriving principles and guidelines to inform the design, development and use of 3‐D virtual environments for learning.
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Metadata
- Authors
- Dalgarno, B., & Lee, M. J. W.
- Affiliations
- Charles Sturt University (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Lee, Mark J. W.
- Venue
- British Journal of Educational Technology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2009-12-20
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 10-32
- ISSN
- 0007-1013 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8535
- OpenAlex
- W2114058809
- Semantic Scholar
- 72c325dc2e4f3d8e8f4e46d0c31d763f1c7af328
- Cited by
- 1,840
- References
- 112
- Citations by year
- 2026: 119 · 2025: 147 · 2024: 167 · 2023: 154 · 2022: 143 · 2021: 144 · 2020: 159 · 2019: 140 · 2018: 92 · 2017: 93 · 2016: 96 · 2015: 77 · 2014: 86 · 2013: 89 · 2012: 70
- FWCI
- 71.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Licence
- Locations
- British Journal of Educational Technology (publishedVersion)
- Charles Sturt University Research Output (CRO) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Johnson and Johnson
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Games and Gamification
- Social Sciences › Education › Online and Blended Learning
- Keywords
- learning affordances, representational fidelity, spatial knowledge representation, experiential learning, contextual learning, cooperative learning, game-based learning, educational simulation, virtual worlds
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-09 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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