The DOI matches its Crossref record; 231 of the 231 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Self-Enhancement: Food for Thought
Open accessAbstract
Self-enhancement denotes a class of psychological phenomena that involve taking a tendentiously positive view of oneself. We distinguish between four levels of self-enhancement—an observed effect, an ongoing process, a personality trait, and an underlying motive—and then use these distinctions to organize the wealth of relevant research. Furthermore, to render these distinctions intuitive, we draw an extended analogy between self-enhancement and the phenomenon of eating. Among the topics we address are (a) manifestations of self-enhancement, both obvious and subtle, and rival interpretations; (b) experimentally documented dynamics of affirming and threatening the ego; and (c) primacy of self-enhancement, considered alongside other intrapsychic phenomena, and across different cultures. Self-enhancement, like eating, is a fundamental part of human nature.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Self-enhancement theory states that humans desire to view themselves positively (Swann et al. 1989), with selfenhancement attempts occurring either privately or publicly (Sedikides and Gregg 2008).”
From Unintended reward costs: the effectiveness of customer referral reward programs for innovative products and services (2019) · cites this paper as Sedikides and Gregg 2008
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Items 201–231 of 231
Tafarodi, R. W., Marshall, T. C., & Milne, A. B. (2003) · PubMed · Cited by 57
Genetic influences on level and stability of self-esteem
Neiss, M. B., Sedikides, C., & Stevenson, J. (2006) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860600662106 · Cited by 57
Self-citationSELF-DEPRECATIVE TENDENCIES IN SELF EVALUATION THROUGH SOCIAL COMPARISON
Takata, T. (1987) · THE JAPANESE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY · doi:10.2130/jjesp.27.27 · Cited by 57
The Why's the Limit: Curtailing Self‐Enhancement With Explanatory Introspection
Sedikides, C., Horton, R. S., & Gregg, A. P. (2007) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00457.x · Cited by 54
Self-citationIs identity per se irrelevant? A contrarian view of self‐verification effects
Gregg, A. (2009) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20428 · Cited by 49
Self-citationTafarodi, R. W., Marshall, T. C., & Milne, A. B. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.29 · Cited by 47
Asian Self-Effacement or Feminine Modesty?
Crittenden, K. S. (1991) · Gender & Society · doi:10.1177/089124391005001005 · Cited by 45
Defensive Social Comparisons and The Constraints of Reality
Stapel, D. A., & Schwinghammer, S. A. (2004) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.22.1.147.30989 · Cited by 44
When do individuals help close others improve? The role of information diagnosticity.
Pemberton, M., & Sedikides, C. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.2.234 · Cited by 44
Self-citationWhen the Stakes are Higher: Self-esteem Instability and Self-handicapping
Newman, L. S., & Wadas, R. F. (1997) · Journal of social behavior and personality · Cited by 42
Task construction and persistence as means for self-assessment of abilities.
Trope, Y., & Ben-Yair, E. (1982) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.42.4.637 · Cited by 40
Beauregard, K. S., & Dunning, D. A. (2001) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1023/a:1010665926045 · Cited by 38
The open-mindedness of the counterattitudinal role player
Greenwald, A. G. (1969) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(69)90031-6 · Cited by 38
Blank, H., & Nestler, S. (2006) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466605x52326 · Cited by 36
Dauenheimer, D., Stahlberg, D., Spreemann, S., & Sedikides, C. (1998) · MADOC (University of Mannheim) · Cited by 34
Self-citationHow probable isprobably? It depends on whom you're talking about
Smits, T., & Hoorens, V. (2005) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.485 · Cited by 34
Willard, G., & Gramzow, R. H. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2007.04.012 · Cited by 30
Solomon, S. H., Greenberg, J., & Pyszczynski, T. (1997) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0801_13 · Cited by 29
Complementarity in Romantic Relationships: A Self-Evaluation Maintenance Perspective
Pilkington, C. J., Tesser, A., & Stephens, D. (1991) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/026540759184003 · Cited by 29
Approach–Avoidance Motivation and Self-Concept Evaluation
Tesser, A., Wood, J. V., & Stapel, D. A. (2005) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203998052-11 · Cited by 29
When does performance feedback prompt complementarity in romantic relationships?
Beach, S. R. H., Whitaker, D. J., Jones, D. J., & Tesser, A. (2001) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2001.tb00038.x · Cited by 27
Self–enhancement in Japan? A reply to Brown & Kobayashi
Heine, S. J. (2003) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/1467-839x.t01-1-00006 · Cited by 24
Mendolia, M., Beach, S. R. H., & Tesser, A. (1996) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.1996.tb00117.x · Cited by 22
On the physical health costs of self-enhancement.
Klein, W. M. P., & Cooper, K. L. (2008) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/11624-009 · Cited by 19
Lies We Live By: The Art of Self-Deception
Giannetti, E. (2000) · Cited by 18
How does accountability reduce self-enhancement? The role of self-focus
Sedikides, C., & Herbst, K. C. (2002) · ePrints Soton (University of Southampton) · Cited by 17
Self-citationSocial perception: A test of the role of arousal in self‐evaluation maintenance processes
Achee, J. W., Tesser, A., & Pilkington, C. J. (1994) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420240111 · Cited by 15
Motivated self-perception and perceived ease in recall of autobiographical memories
Sanitioso, R. B., & Niedenthal, P. M. (2005) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860500386848 · Cited by 13
On the physical health benefits of self-enhancement.
Segerstrom, S. C., & Roach, A. R. (2008) · Self-criticism and self-enhancement: Theory, research, and clinical implications. · doi:10.1037/11624-003 · Cited by 12
Elder, J. P., & DeWitt, N. W. (1956) · The American Journal of Philology · doi:10.2307/291947 · Cited by 6
Finlay, G., & Tozer, H. F. (1877) · Clarendon Press eBooks · Cited by 4
Research works printed but not linked: 22
- Alicke M.D., 2005, Studies in self and identity, 85
- Brown B.R. (2000). When moral entitlement leads to immoral acts. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, Stanford, CA.
- Brown J.D., 1998, The self
- 10.1037/0022-3514.68.6.1152 · DOI
- Dauenheimer D.G., 2002, Revue Internationale De Psychologie Sociale, 15, 89
- 10.1207/s15324834basp1601&2_9 · DOI
- Elster J., 1986, The multiple self
- Gallagher S., 1999, Models of the self
- Greenwald A.G., 1985, The self and social life, 126
- Hamamura T., 2007, Self-criticism and self-enhancement: Theory, research, and clinical implications, 105
- Heatherton T.F., 2007, Frontiers in social psychology: The self, 3
- Hobbes T., 1991, Leviathan
- 10.1037/0022-3514.62.1.26 · DOI
- Klein M.P., 2007, Self-criticism and self-enhancement: Theory, research, and clinical implications, 37
- Mandeville B., 1705, The fable of the bees: or private vices, public benefits, 1
- Nietzche F. (1972). Beyond good and evil (R.J. Hollongdale, Trans.). London: Penguin Books. (Original work published 1886)
- Parfit D., 1984, Reasons and persons
- Sedikides C., 2007, The self: Frontiers in social psychology, 163
- Sedikides C., 2002, Revue Internationale De Psychologie Sociale, 15, 113
- 10.1037/0022-3514.83.3.592 · DOI
- Segerstrom S.C., 2007, Self-criticism and self-enhancement: Theory, research, and clinical implications, 37
- Uhlmann E.L. (2007). Toward an understanding of motivated discrimination: The roles of constructed criteria and self-perceived objectivity in hiring decisions. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Yale University, New Haven, CT.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Self‐Compassion, Self‐Esteem, and Well‐Being
Neff, K. D. (2011) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00330.x · Cited by 1,464
Self-enhancement and self-protection: What they are and what they do
Alicke, M. D., & Sedikides, C. (2009) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463280802613866 · Cited by 952
Self-citationWhy Do People Regulate Their Emotions? A Taxonomy of Motives in Emotion Regulation
Tamir, M. (2015) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868315586325 · Cited by 840
The evolution and psychology of self-deception
von Hippel, W., & Trivers, R. L. (2011) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x10001354 · Cited by 767
George, L. S., & Park, C. L. (2016) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/gpr0000077 · Cited by 682
Metadata
- Authors
- Sedikides, C., & Gregg, A. P.
- Affiliations
- University of Southampton (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Gregg, Aiden P.
- Venue
- Perspectives on Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2008-03
- Volume
- 3
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 102-116
- ISSN
- 1745-6916 (ISSN-L)
- 1745-6924
- OpenAlex
- W2023041445
- Cited by
- 880
- References
- 228
- Citations by year
- 2026: 43 · 2025: 52 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 38 · 2022: 49 · 2021: 64 · 2020: 100 · 2019: 50 · 2018: 82 · 2017: 48 · 2016: 43 · 2015: 39 · 2014: 42 · 2013: 56 · 2012: 43
- FWCI
- 31.97
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- Perspectives on Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- ePrints Soton (University of Southampton) (acceptedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Keywords
- self-enhancement, self-enhancement motive, ego threat
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review