The DOI matches its Crossref record.
Reality monitoring and psychotic hallucinations
Abstract
Hallucinating psychiatric patients, patients with delusions but without a history of hallucinations and normal controls were compared on a reality-monitoring task in which they were first required to generate answers to easy or difficult clues and to listen to low-probability or high-probability paired associates. After an interval of one week, the subjects were presented with a list in which their answers to the clues were mixed with the associates and with words not previously presented, and they were required to identify the source of each item (self-generated, presented by the experimenter or new). The psychiatric patients were generally less accurate in identifying the source of the items in comparison with the normal controls. However, hallucinators more often misattributed high cognitive effort self-generated items (answers to difficult clues) to the experimenter than either the psychiatric or the normal controls. The results are interpreted as consistent with the hypothesis that hallucinations are self-generated events misattributed to an external source.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Findings typically indicate that hallucinating patients or hallucination-prone participants are more likely to misattribute recalled items to the experimenter (Bentall et al., 1991; Laroi et al., 2004)”
From Auditory verbal hallucinations as atypical inner speech monitoring, and the potential of neurostimulation as a treatment option (2013) · cites this paper as Bentall et al., 1991
In the citing paper
“There is evidence supporting the theory that voice-hearing results from inner speech being misattributed to an external source, that is, a problem of source monitoring. 23-25”
From Towards an Integrative Account of Potential Mechanisms Mediating the Path From Sleep Dysfunction to Hallucinations (2025) · cites this paper as [23]
Citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 201–300 of 316
Source monitoring and proneness to auditory-verbal hallucinations: A signal detection analysis
McKague, M., McAnally, K. I., Skovron, M., Bendall, S., & Jackson, H. J. (2012) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546805.2012.676311 · Cited by 10
“In other studies, pariticipants have been required to speak both the self- and other-generated words during the study phase (e.g., Bentall et al., 1991).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialChhabra, S., Badcock, J. C., Maybery, M. T., & Leung, D. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.01.005 · Cited by 10
Woodward, T. S., & Menon, M. (2010) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-010-0151-9 · Cited by 12
“An association between hallucinations and an externalization bias has been reported for schizophrenia patients [1, 2, 4, 5] and for healthy subjects who report hearing voices [6].”
BackgroundPrevalence of multisensory hallucinations in people at risk of transition to psychosis
Dudley, R. E. J., Denton, S., Matthewson, J., Pervez, S., Aynsworth, C., Dodgson, G., & Barclay, N. L. (2023) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115091 · Cited by 9
Jimenez, A. M., & Green, M. F. (2024) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2024.07.048 · Cited by 10
Cognitive Mapping Deficits in Schizophrenia: A Critical Overview
Bose, A., Agarwal, S. M., Kalmady, S. V., & Venkatasubramanian, G. (2014) · Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine · doi:10.4103/0253-7176.127242 · Cited by 9
“[44,45] Several studies report a general impairment of action monitoring in schizophrenia patients.”
BackgroundSiddi, S., Петретто, Д. Р., Scanu, R., Burrai, C., Baita, A., Trincas, P., Trogu, E., Campus, L., Contu, A., & Preti, A. (2016) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.09.024 · Cited by 9
Primary states of consciousness: A review of historical and contemporary developments
Schoeller, F. (2023) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2023.103536 · Cited by 8
Fagel, S., de Sonneville, L. M. J., van Engeland, H., & Swaab, H. (2013) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-013-9829-6 · Cited by 9
Increased hindsight bias in schizophrenia.
Woodward, T. S., Moritz, S., Arnold, M. M., Cuttler, C., Whitman, J. C., & Lindsay, D. S. (2006) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/0894-4105.20.4.461 · Cited by 9
Lower P300 amplitudes for internally-generated events in patients with schizophrenia
Abhishek, P., Nizamie, S. H., Dubey, I., Goyal, N., Tikka, S. K., Pachori, H., Kumar, D., & Katshu, M. Z. U. H. (2018) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2018.05.013 · Cited by 9
Psychotic features in the general population. Risk factors for what?
Krabbendam, L., Hanssen, M., Bak, M., & van Os, J. (2004) · Steinkopff eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-7985-1953-4_4 · Cited by 9
Predictive coding and hallucinations: a question of balance
Fletcher, P. C. (2017) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546805.2017.1391083 · Cited by 7
Reality monitoring and its association with social functioning in schizophrenia
Divilbiss, M., McCleery, A., Aakre, J. M., Seghers, J. P., Schumann, E. B., & Docherty, N. M. (2010) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2010.07.041 · Cited by 8
“Research has found evidence, albeit somewhat mixed, to support associations between source monitoring impairment and these core psychotic symptoms (Bentall et al., 1991; Keefe et al., 1999; Brunelin et al., 2006).”
ResultHigh delusional ideation is associated with false pictorial memory
Evans, L. H., McCann, H. M., Isgar, J. G., & Gaston, A. (2018) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2018.09.005 · Cited by 8
Validación externa de dos cuestionarios de esquizotipia
Paíno, M., Rodrigo, A. M. L., Inda, M., et al. (1997) · Psicothema · Cited by 8
Olfactory and Gustatory Hallucinations
Stevenson, R. J., & Langdon, R. A. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-0959-5_12 · Cited by 7
Guillaume, F., Thomas, E. M., Faget, C., Richieri, R. M., & Lançon, C. (2014) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2014.11.060 · Cited by 6
“This dual-process view is especially relevant in schizophrenia, where reality or source monitoring deficits are observed (Bentall et al., 1991; Henquet et al., 2005; Woodward et al., 2007).”
BackgroundChinchani, A. M., Menon, M., Roes, M., Hwang, H., Allen, P., Bell, V., Bless, J. J., Bortolon, C., Cella, M., Fernyhough, C., et al. (2021) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2021.08.014 · Cited by 6
Associative interference does not affect recognition memory in schizophrenia
Lepage, M., Menear, M., Montoya, A. G., & Achim, A. M. (2005) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2005.04.003 · Cited by 7
“Similar dissociations between item recognition and associative recognition have also been reported in other investigations (Bentall et al., 1991; Elvevåg et al., 2000; Rizzo et al., 1996).”
ResultThe classification of schizophrenia
Bentall, R. P. (1992) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-4457-3_3 · Cited by 7
Self-citationSheaves, B., Cropley, V. L., Moseley, P., Woodruff, P. W. R., Punton, G., Speth, C., Speth, J., Meerlo, P., & Brederoo, S. G. (2025) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbaf107 · Cited by 6
Hallucinations and source monitoring in Alzheimer’s disease
Haj, M. E., Badcock, J. C., & Larøi, F. (2020) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546805.2020.1832457 · Cited by 5
Anomalous experiences and schizotypy: which comes first? The Hermit Crab syndrome hypothesis
Mathijsen, F. P. (2015) · Mental Health Religion & Culture · doi:10.1080/13674676.2015.1004627 · Cited by 6
McKague, M., McAnally, K. I., Puccio, F., Bendall, S., & Jackson, H. J. (2012) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546805.2012.670503 · Cited by 6
“Evidence for this ‘‘externalisation bias’’ in patients with AVH was first reported by Bentall, Baker, and Havers (1991), and has since been reported in a number of other studies with hallucinating patient groups (e.g., Brébion et al., 2000; Gorman, Amador, Malaspina, & Sharif, 2002; Costafreda,…”
ResultSmoking with patients: policy vs therapy
Tarbuck, P. (1996) · British Journal of Nursing · doi:10.12968/bjon.1996.5.4.224 · Cited by 6
A Systematic Review of the experimental induction of auditory perceptual experiences
Anderson, A., Hartley, S., & Bucci, S. (2020) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2020.101635 · Cited by 5
Bentall, R. P., & Varese, F. (2013) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/9780262019200.003.0004 · Cited by 6
Self-citationBrébion, G., Stephan‐Otto, C., Ochoa, S., Cuevas‐Esteban, J., Núñez, A., & Usall, J. (2019) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2019.102823 · Cited by 5
Employing Synergistic Interactions of Virtual Reality and Psychedelics in Neuropsychopharmacology
Moroz, M., & Carhart-Harris, R. L. (2018) · doi:10.1109/var4good.2018.8576882 · Cited by 6
“What technology lacks, however, is the ability to directly suppress the brain’s natural reality-testing circuits [5,40,44].”
BackgroundPeyroux, É., & Nicolas Franck, B. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-4121-2_1 · Cited by 5
Connectivity Issues of the ‘Hallucinating’ Brain
Benetti, S., Pettersson‐Yeo, W., & Mechelli, A. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-4121-2_22 · Cited by 5
Psychotherapies for the Psychoses
Shyu, T. (2009) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/09638230902946858 · Cited by 5
A review of source memory research in the source monitoring paradigm.
Kinjo, H. (2001) · The Japanese journal of psychology · doi:10.4992/jjpsy.72.134 · Cited by 5
EL PROCESO DE CONTROL DE LA REALIDAD EN SUJETOS CON PROPENSIÓN A LA ALUCINACIÓN
Ruiz-Vargas, J. M., Cuevas, I., & López-Frutos, J. M. (1998) · Psicothema · Cited by 5
Momeni, F., & Raghibdoust, S. (2012) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.01.042 · Cited by 4
Selective Attention Impairment in Schizophrenia
Ferchiou, A., Schürhoff, F., Bulzacka, E., Leboyer, M., & Szöke, A. (2010) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0b013e3181f4ae91 · Cited by 4
“, taking a new event for an old one) and more misattributions of self generated events to an external source than patients with no hallucinations (Bentall et al. 1991; Brébion et al., 2000; Brunelin et al., 2006; Woodward et al., 2007).”
BackgroundCognitive correlates of auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia spectrum disorders
Aleksandrowicz, A., Kowalski, J., Stefaniak, I., Elert, K., & Gawęda, Ł. (2023) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115372 · Cited by 5
“Early cognitive models of AHs indicate source monitoring as one of the potential mechanisms of AHs (Bentall, 1990; Bentall et al., 1991; Frith, 1992).”
Reality monitoring in a hypothetically hallucination-prone population
Frutos, J. M. L., Salvador, M. I. C., & Ruiz-Vargas, J. M. (1999) · Psychology in Spain · Cited by 4
Did I imagine that? The functional role of paracingulate cortex in reality monitoringPreprint
Garrison, J., Saviola, F., Morgenroth, E., Barker, H., Lührs, M., Simons, J. S., Fernyhough, C., & Allen, P. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.05.19.103572 · Cited by 5
Suter, G., Apperly, I. A., Zhang, L., & Černis, E. (2026) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2026.01.021 · Cited by 4
Bere, M., Rossell, S. L., & Toh, W. L. (2024) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2024.116268 · Cited by 7
Braha-Zeitoun, S., Andrianisaina, P. S., Bouaziz, N., Isaac, C., Moulier, V., Gaudeau-Bosma, C., & Januel, D. (2014) · Annales Médico-psychologiques revue psychiatrique · doi:10.1016/j.amp.2014.03.011 · Cited by 3
Déficits du monitoring de la source et hallucinations schizophréniques
Jacquet, P. O., Franck, N., & Demily, C. (2012) · Encyclopédie médico-chirurgicale. Psychiatrie · doi:10.1016/s0246-1072(12)70014-7 · Cited by 3
The Role of Memory Retrieval and Emotional Salience in the Emergence of Auditory Hallucinations
Rossell, S. L. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-4121-2_8 · Cited by 3
Neuropsychologie clinique de la schizophrénie
Nicolas Franck, B. (2011) · Dunod eBooks · doi:10.3917/dunod.prout.2011.01.0079 · Cited by 3
Oyebode, F. (2008) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-7020-2885-4.10007-7 · Cited by 3
Chapitre 12 – Schizophrénie et autres troubles psychotiques
Nicolas Franck, B. (2017) · doi:10.1016/b978-2-294-74927-8.00012-7 · Cited by 3
Franck, N., & Thibaut, F. (2004) · Encyclopédie médico-chirurgicale. Psychiatrie · doi:10.1016/s0246-1072(03)00104-4 · Cited by 4
Estado actual de la investigación psicológica en las alucinaciones auditivas
Garcelán, S. P. (2006) · APUNTES DE PSICOLOGÍA · doi:10.55414/zc1j7a93 · Cited by 3
Episodic memory precision and reality monitoring following stimulation of angular gyrusPreprint
Kwon, S., Richter, F. R., Siena, M. J., et al. (2021) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2021.09.15.460461 · Cited by 3
Unreal? A Behavioral, Physiological, and Computational Model of the Sense of RealityPreprint
Drori, G., Bar-Tal, P., Hirsh, O., berlinger, A., Goldberg, N., Zvilichovsky, Y., Hertz, U., Zaidel, A., & Salomon, R. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.04.07.647542 · Cited by 3
Illusionism and the distortion thesis
Gorbachev, M. D., & Frankish, K. (2025) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-025-05095-3 · Cited by 2
“Moreover, there is evidence that some hallucinations and delusions involve misinterpretation of introspective information (e.g., Bentall et al., 1991; Maher, 1999). illusion).”
Salaminios, G., Morosan, L., Sprüngli‐Toffel, E., Tanzer, M., D, S. E. M., & Debbané, M. (2020) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546805.2020.1734552 · Cited by 2
“Interestingly, increased cognitive effort appears to exacerbate the rate of externalising misattributions in these samples (Bentall et al., 1991; Larøi et al., 2004).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Strasbourg Visual Scale: A Novel Method to Assess Visual Hallucinations
Giersch, A., Huard, T., Park, S., & Rosen, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.685018 · Cited by 2
López-Frutos, J. M., Ruiz-Vargas, J. M., & Rodríguez, R. H. (2004) · Psicothema · Cited by 2
Bayesian accounts and black swans: Questioning the erotetic theory of delusional thinking
McKay, R. (2015) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546805.2015.1084910 · Cited by 1
“For example, Bentall, Baker, and Havers (1991) found that hallucinating patients were more likely to misattribute self-generated events to an external source than were patients with delusions but no history of hallucinations.”
BackgroundControl central y sintomatología psicótica
Martínez-Suárez, P. C., Giráldez, S. L., Paíno, M., et al. (1997) · Revista de Psicopatología y Psicología Clínica · doi:10.5944/rppc.vol.2.num.1.1997.3832 · Cited by 1
Vers une psychologie janétienne des psychoses ?
Baudin, G., & Réveillère, C. (2019) · European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1016/j.ejtd.2018.12.003 · Cited by 2
Salaminios, G., & Debbané, M. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-41788-7_9 · Cited by 1
Haarsma, J., & Kok, P. (2025) · Current topics in behavioral neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2025_595 · Cited by 2
Mad science: discourses of 'schizophrenia'and 'therapy' for hearing voices
Wise, M. J. (2004) · Murdoch University Research Portal · Cited by 1
Adler, M. (1997) · Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine · doi:10.1177/014107689709000109 · Cited by 1
Vercammen, A. (2009) · University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) · Cited by 1
Cognitive processing associated with hallucinations for At Risk Mental State
Leicester, S. (2013) · Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) · Cited by 1
Commentary by Marcia K. Johnson (New Haven, CT)
Johnson, M. K. (2000) · Neuropsychoanalysis · doi:10.1080/15294145.2000.10773299 · Cited by 1
Psicopatología y realidad virtual
Rivera, R. M. B., Arbona, C. B., & Tordera, C. P. (1998) · Revista de Psicopatología y Psicología Clínica · doi:10.5944/rppc.vol.3.num.3.1998.3864 · Cited by 1
Primary States of Consciousness: A Review of Historical and Contemporary DevelopmentsPreprint
Schoeller, F. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/r8pmk · Cited by 1
(2000) · Time to knit · doi:10.1016/s0246-1072(19)30111-7 · Cited by 1
Bradbury, D. A. (2026) · e-space (Manchester Metropolitan University) · doi:10.83056/mmu.32434503 · Cited by 1
Dressel, M. (1995) · KOPS (University of Konstanz) · Cited by 1
15 Cognitieve therapie bij psychose
van der Gaag, M. (2011) · Bohn Stafleu van Loghum eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-90-313-8310-8_15
Fowler, D. G., Garety, P. A., & Kuipers, E. (2002) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-4-431-68514-2_36
The Bodily Self and The Role of its Disruption in Schizophrenia
Ferri, F. (2012) · DSpaceUnipr (University of Parma)
Latent inhibition and psychometrically defined schizotypy : an experimental investigation.
Tsakanikos, E. (2003) · CogPrints (University of Southampton)
On social cognition : vulnerability and symptoms in psychosis
Versmissen, D. (2009) · doi:10.26481/dis.20090508dv
Lewis, A. J. (2008) · Deakin Research Online (Deakin University)
Hallucinatie, waan en confabulatie: eenheid in verscheidenheid?
Eling, P. (2013) · Tijdschrift voor Neuropsychiatrie en Gedragsneurologie · doi:10.1007/s40533-013-0026-2
Nurses' responses to patient behaviours that threaten health
Gray, R. J., & Thomas, B. (1996) · British Journal of Nursing · doi:10.12968/bjon.1996.5.4.222
Self-Awareness: The Neural Signature of Disturbed Self-Monitoring
Fink, G. R. (2014) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2014.09.060
Armando, M. (2013) · University of Birmingham Institutional Research Archive (University of Birmingham)
Functional neuroimaging in psychiatry
Maurer, K., Prvulovic, D., Zanella, F. E., & Linden, D. E. J. (2002) · International Congress Series · doi:10.1016/s0531-5131(02)01106-8
XVII-7 The Neuropsychology of Schizophrenia
Krabbendam, L., & Jolles, J. (2015)
Neuropsychologie clinique de la schizophrénie
Vianin, P., & Favrod, J. (2011) · Dunod eBooks · doi:10.3917/dunod.prout.2011.01.0055
Hallucinatie, waan en confabulatie: eenheid in
Eling, P. (2013)
Hessen‐Kayfitz, J. K. (2013)
Predictive processing and source monitoringin the psychosis continuum
Humpston, C. S. (2017) · ORCA Online Research @Cardiff (Cardiff University)
Cognitieve therapie bij auditief verbale hallucinaties en wanen
van der Gaag, M. (2019) · Bohn Stafleu van Loghum eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-90-368-2021-9_14
Hallucination Proneness and Musical Aptitude: Functional and Microstructural Underpinnings
Spray, A. (2019) · University of Liverpool · doi:10.17638/03046380
Brunelin, J., Combris, M., Poulet, E., et al. (2006) · European psychiatry (Ed Española) · doi:10.1017/s1134066500003659
Thornhill, H. (2002) · UCL Discovery (University College London)
Cognitive Mapping Deficits in Schizophrenia: A Critical Overview
Malla, A. A., & Bhat, N. M. (2015) · International Journal of Indian Psychology · doi:10.25215/0202.022
An investigation of the interaction between schizotypy and cognitive monitoring processes
Lippett, R. (2004) · UCL Discovery (University College London)
A search for autoprosopagnosia in schizophrenia
Irani, F., & Chute, D. L. (2008) · iDEA - Drexel University Institutional Repository · doi:10.17918/etd-2818
Mémoire et distorsion de la réalité dans la schizophrénie
Guillaume, F. (2014) · Presses universitaires de Provence eBooks · doi:10.4000/books.pup.37883
(2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-37254-7_12
Schizophrénie et autres troubles psychotiques
Nicolas Franck, B. (2012) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-2-294-71157-2.00012-1
Psychopathologie et neurosciences
Campanella, S., & Streel, E. (2008) · Neurosciences & cognition. Série LMD · doi:10.3917/dbu.campa.2008.01.0315
Metadata
- Authors
- Bentall, R. P., Baker, G. A., & Havers, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Liverpool (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Bentall, Richard P.
- ORCID
- Bentall, Richard P.
- Venue
- British Journal of Clinical Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 1991-09
- Volume
- 30
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 213-222
- ISSN
- 0144-6657 (ISSN-L)
- 2044-8260
- OpenAlex
- W2068781732
- Cited by
- 312
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 14 · 2012: 18
- FWCI
- 2.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- British Journal of Clinical Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Schizophrenia research and treatment
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Hallucinations in medical conditions
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- reality monitoring, delusions, source monitoring, self-generated information, misattribution, paired associates, cognitive effort
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Attention, Delusions, Female, Hallucinations, Humans, Internal-External Control, Male, Paired-Associate Learning, Reality Testing, Schizophrenia, Schizophrenic Psychology, Speech Perception
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
