The NAGPRA Decision‐Making Process and Praxis: A Case Study of the New Mexico State University Museum

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

At the time, former museum director Arakawa did not fully account for the fact that many tribal communities have cultural prohibitions against being near ancestral remains.

“At the time, the former museum director, Arakawa, did not fully account for the fact that many tribal communities have cultural prohibitions against being near ancestral remains.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The majority of unidentified human remains and AFO in the NMSU Museum collections were presumably recovered from southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona.

“However, the majority of unidentified human remains and AFO in the NMSU Museum collections were presumably recovered from southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In 2015, new museum staff reinitiated the NMSU NAGPRA process and successfully repatriated ancestors and belongings to affiliated tribes.

“In 2015, new museum staff reinitiated the NMSU NAGPRA process and explored new strategies for completing an inventory, initiating consultation meetings, and successfully repatriating ancestors (ancestral remains) and belongings (associated funerary objects) 1 to affiliated tribes.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

By early 2023, the inventory was sufficient for a Notice of Inventory Completion to be accepted and published in the Federal Register, with an amended version published a month later.

“By early 2023, the inventory was sufficient for a Notice of Inventory Completion to be accepted and published in the Federal Register with an amended version published a month later (Arakawa 2023).”

• cites Arakawa 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

As a result of these experiences, the museum staff secured an alternative space in another campus building for the care of NAGPRA ancestors and belongings, where materials have been curated in a secure room since 2017.

“As a result of these experiences, and with support from other NMSU administrative personnel, the museum staff secured an alternative space in another campus building for the care of NAGPRA ancestors and belongings, where the materials have been curated in a secure room since 2017.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Since 2015, all NMSU NAGPRA human remains and AFO were curated in a single room on the second floor of the museum, with no NAGPRA items housed in the anthropology building.

“Notably, since 2015, all NMSU NAGPRA human remains and AFO were curated in a single room on the second floor of the museum, with no NAGPRA items housed in the anthropology building.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

Based on the conversation, the tribal representatives agreed that all unidentified human remains and their funerary objects should be treated with respect and reburied as close as possible to where they were most likely found.

“Based on the conversation, the tribal representatives agreed that all unidentified human remains and their funerary objects should be treated with respect and reburied as close as possible to where they were most likely found.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Personnel changes at the museum and a complex, poorly documented collection added to the difficulties of completing the NAGPRA inventory.

“Personnel changes at the museum and a complex, poorly documented collection added to the difficulties of completing the NAGPRA inventory.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The NMSU Museum staff did not fully anticipate that cultural prohibitions against proximity to ancestral remains would cause serious concern for many tribal members, leading some to hesitate in attending museum events.

“The NMSU Museum staff did not fully anticipate that cultural prohibitions against proximity to ancestral remains would cause serious concern for many tribal members, leading some to hesitate in attending museum events.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

There was no opposition to this approach; therefore, the authors adopted it throughout the project.

“There was no opposition to this approach; therefore, we adopted it throughout the project.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

Personnel at the New Mexico State University Museum struggled for more than 20 years to complete the required NAGPRA inventory of their collections, a challenge faced by many museums.

“Although the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) was enacted in 1990, personnel at the New Mexico State University Museum (hereafter NMSU Museum) struggled for more than 20 years to complete the required inventory of their collections, a challenge faced by many museums.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The absence of THPOs made it challenging for many museums, as staff often did not know whom to contact or how to proceed with scheduling NAGPRA consultations and repatriation steps.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Following the consultation, they reached a consensus that the remains would be reburied somewhere between the cities of Las Cruces and Albuquerque, NM.

“Following the consultation, they reached a consensus that the remains would be reburied somewhere between the cities of Las Cruces and Albuquerque, NM.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

The Hopi tribe would take the lead on the Springville collection, and the Zuni tribe would serve as the signatory for all three reburial events.

“The Hopi tribe would take the lead on the Springville collection, and the Zuni tribe would serve as the signatory for all three reburial events.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The previous forensic analysis of the collections by professional scholars was invaluable in supporting the students' work.

“The previous forensic analysis of the collections by professional scholars was also invaluable in supporting their work.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In 2024, the Gila National Forest repatriation event was led by Acoma representatives with Zuni witnesses, and remains of at least 49 individuals and 710 AFOs were reburied at a newly approved forest site.

“In 2024, the Gila National Forest repatriation event was led by Acoma representatives with Zuni witnesses.8 Remains of at least 49 individuals and 710 AFOs were reburied at a newly approved forest site.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Although NMSU personnel initially presented two potential sites via Zoom PowerPoint slides, many tribal representatives found it difficult to visualize and fully connect with the locations in a remote setting.

“However, although NMSU personnel initially presented two potential sites via Zoom PowerPoint slides, many tribal representatives found it difficult to visualize and fully connect with the locations in a remote setting.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Each reinterment event was led by a different tribal group, and the title and ownership of the NMSU NAGPRA ancestral remains and belongings were formally repatriated to those groups.

“Each event was led by a different tribal group, and the title and ownership of the NMSU NAGPRA ancestral remains and belongings were formally repatriated to those groups.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

The NMSU Museum staff had anticipated such questions prior to the consultation, as they were uncertain where the unidentified human remains in their care would ultimately be reinterred.

“The NMSU Museum staff had anticipated such questions prior to the consultation, as they were uncertain where the unidentified human remains in their care would ultimately be reinterred.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

GNF needed to identify a new reburial site because their current one was already full.

“However, they noted the need to identify a new reburial site, as their current one was already full.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The Breland-comingle collection contained human remains representing a minimum of 138 individuals.

“The Breland-comingle collection contained human remains representing a minimum of 138 individuals.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

After this conversation, one tribal representative expressed concern that the BLM and other government agencies continue to follow policies that prevent the reinterment of ancestors near their place of origin, while still issuing archaeological permits and land leases that fail to account for these issues.

“After this conversation, one tribal representative expressed concern that the BLM and other government agencies continue to follow policies that prevent the reinterment of ancestors near their place of origin, while still issuing archaeological permits and land leases that fail to account for these issues.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Both agencies reached a compromise and agreed to include all Pueblo groups currently residing in New Mexico and Arizona.

“Ultimately, both agencies reached a compromise and agreed to include all Pueblo groups currently residing in New Mexico and Arizona.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Following the re-inventory, several discrepancies emerged between the 1996 inventory and the updated version, and determining the Minimum Number of Individuals in the Breland co-mingled collection took about 7 months to resolve.

“Following this re-inventory, several discrepancies emerged between the 1996 inventory and the updated version.The most challenging issue involved determining the Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) in the Breland co-mingled collection-a process that ultimately took about 7 months to resolve.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The BLM NAGPRA coordinator maintained that all Pueblo tribal groups should be included as culturally affiliated.

“However, the BLM NAGPRA coordinator maintained that all Pueblo tribal groups should be included as culturally affiliated.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Regents approved the use of the property for repatriation and reinterment, determining that the NMSU NAGPRA process constitutes a valid educational activity benefiting students, researchers, and the university community.

“The Regents approved the use of the property for repatriation and reinterment, determining that the NMSU NAGPRA process constitutes a valid educational activity-benefiting students, researchers, and the university community.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Tribal representatives agreed that extended analysis was unnecessary and emphasized moving forward with reinterment.

“The tribal representatives agreed that extended analysis was unnecessary and emphasized the importance of moving forward with reinterment.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Given the fragmentary nature of the NMSU NAGPRA remains, sorting them by sex and age would require over a year to complete.

“Staff explained that, given the fragmentary nature of the remains, such analysis would require over a year to complete.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The NMSU Museum operates with a small staff: a half-time director, a full-time curator, a contractor, and a few student assistants.

“The NMSU Museum operates with a small staff: a half-time director, a full-time curator, a contractor, and a few student assistants.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

NMSU Museum personnel believed that the tribal groups who actively participated in all three NMSU NAGPRA consultation meetings should hold greater authority and responsibility in decisionmaking regarding repatriation and reinternment.

“NMSU Museum personnel believed that the tribal groups who actively participated in all three NMSU NAGPRA consultation meetings should hold greater authority and responsibility in decisionmaking regarding repatriation and reinternment.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

At NMSU, former museum director Arakawa consulted Steven Nash, who provided helpful insights, especially regarding the selection of a reburial site for culturally unidentified human remains.

“At NMSU, former museum director Arakawa consulted Steven Nash-formerly Senior Curator of Archaeology at the Denver Museum of Nature & Science and now President and CEO of Archaeology Southwest-who provided helpful insights, especially regarding the selection of a reburial site for culturally unidentified human remains.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

A serious issue was raised by the Gila National Forest NAGPRA coordinator, who indicated that their existing reburial sites were full and that a new secure site would need to be identified within the GNF.

“A serious issue was raised by the Gila National Forest (GNF) NAGPRA coordinator, who indicated that their existing reburial sites were full and that a new secure site would need to be identified within the GNF.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The remains were designated as 'unidentified or unclaimed human remains' (the Breland-Comingle collection) and reburied on NMSU property.

“We therefore designated these remains as”

It may state two separate claims as one.

These decisions reflected tribal guidance and cultural protocols and included two federal lands: Gila National Forest and Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest.

“These decisions reflected tribal guidance and cultural protocols and included two federal lands: Gila National Forest and Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In 2025, the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest repatriation event was led by a Hopi representative with Zuni observers, and the reburial included remains and cultural items recovered from Springerville, Arizona, in the 1970s.

“Finally, the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest repatriation event was led by a Hopi representative with Zuni observers in 2025.The reburial included remains and cultural items recovered from Springerville, Arizona, in the 1970s.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The NMSU Museum staff was able to determine the origins of the Gila National Forest and Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest collections and had reliable provenience information for them.

“In other words, the NMSU Museum staff was able to determine the origins of these collections and had reliable provenience information for them.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

One recurring issue during the NAGPRA project involved the processing of payments and reimbursements for tribal representatives; under NMSU policy, payments for contract work can only be processed after the event or project has taken place, so tribal representatives often received payment several weeks after their participation.

“One recurring issue during the NAGPRA project involved the processing of payments and reimbursements for tribal representatives.Under NMSU policy, payments for contract work can only be processed after the event or project has taken place.As a result, tribal representatives often received payment several weeks after their participation.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest representative confirmed that ASNF would take responsibility for the Springville collection originally recovered from southeastern Arizona and would provide a reburial site previously agreed upon in consultation with the Hopi tribe.

“The Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest (ASNF) representative confirmed that they would take responsibility for the Springville collectionoriginally recovered from southeastern Arizona-and would provide a reburial site previously agreed upon in consultation with the Hopi tribe.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The Gila National Forest NAGPRA coordinator stated that GNF would accept three or more private collections, along with all other ancestral remains and AFO recovered from GNF lands.

“During the second consultation meeting, the Gila National Forest (GNF) NAGPRA coordinator stated that GNF would accept three or more private collections, along with all other ancestral remains and AFO recovered from GNF lands.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

One tribal representative shared that, due to delayed payments from previous university-related projects-some taking up to a year-he had resorted to selling craft items to fund travel to new events.

“One representative shared that, due to delayed payments from previous university-related projects-some taking up to a year-he had resorted to selling craft items to fund travel to new events.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Tribal representatives agreed that ancestral remains and AFO recovered from unknown locations should be grouped under the categories 'unknown' and 'Breland-comingle.'

“During the second consultation meeting, tribal representatives agreed that ancestral remains and AFO recovered from unknown locations should be grouped under the categories”

It may state two separate claims as one.

To determine suitable reinterment sites, new museum personnel relaunched the NAGPRA project in 2015, prioritizing the building of trust with federally recognized tribes.

“To determine suitable reinterment sites, new museum personnel relaunched the NAGPRA project in 2015, prioritizing the building of trust with federally recognized tribes.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Findings suggest that most of the Breland-comingle collections were likely acquired or donated from southern New Mexico or southeastern Arizona.

“Notably, findings suggest that most of the Breland-comingle collections were likely acquired or donated from southern New Mexico or southeastern Arizona.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Regents confirmed that there was no intent to pursue the reversionary clause, thereby clearing the way for the reburial.

“Furthermore, the Regents confirmed that there was no intent to pursue the reversionary clause, thereby clearing the way for the reburial.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Several tribal representatives expressed that they would defer to local tribes regarding the reinterment of the NMSU NAGPRA ancestral remains and belongings.

“Several representatives expressed that they would defer to local tribes regarding the reinterment of the NMSU NAGPRA ancestral remains and belongings.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The third NMSU NAGPRA consultation meeting was held in person at NMSU in April 2022.

“The third NMSU NAGPRA consultation meeting was held in person at NMSU in April 2022.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

One tribal representative raised a concern about the presence of written numbers or labels on human remains and funerary objects, suggesting that these markings should be erased or removed.

“One tribal representative raised a concern about the presence of written numbers or labels on human remains and funerary objects, suggesting that these markings should be erased or removed.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

The Regents expressed concern that using the site for reinterment might violate the original terms of the land transfer and potentially activate the reversionary clause, returning the land to federal ownership.

“However, the Regents expressed concern that doing so might violate the original terms of the land transfer and potentially activate the reversionary clause, returning the land to federal ownership.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The Acoma would lead the Gila National Forest collections and related private collections.

“The Acoma would lead the Gila National Forest collections and related private collections.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

At the NMSU property site in 2023, the repatriation event was led by the Mescalero Apache tribe with Zuni representatives present, and remains of 122 individuals and 710 AFOs were buried at a designated NMSU site managed by the Bureau of Land Management.

“At the NMSU property site in 2023, the repatriation event was led by the Mescalero Apache tribe with Zuni representatives present.Remains of 122 individuals and 710 AFOs were buried at a designated NMSU site managed by the Bureau of Land Management.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

The NMSU Museum committed to making limited identifications where possible while prioritizing the repatriation process.

“Consequently, the museum committed to making limited identifications where possible while prioritizing the repatriation process.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Based on a consensus among tribal groups, three reinterment events were held between 2022 and 2025 at separate locations: the NMSU property site, Gila National Forest, and Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest.

“Based on a consensus among tribal groups, three reinterment events were held between 2022 and 2025 at separate locationsthe NMSU property site, Gila National Forest, and Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Decades-old records were incomplete, inconsistent, and in many cases entirely missing critical details, and frequent staff turnover over the years disrupted continuity in recordkeeping and hindered the preservation of provenance data.

“It became clear that decades-old records were incomplete, inconsistent, and in many cases, entirely missing critical details.This lack of comprehensive documentation was compounded by frequent staff turnover over the years, which disrupted continuity in recordkeeping and hindered the preservation of provenance data.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The 122 AFO included 79 potsherds, five sandstone tools, one antler tool, one polished bone, 14 stone flakes, 15 pebbles, and five charcoal fragments.

“The 122 AFO included 79 potsherds, five sandstone tools, one antler tool, one polished bone, 14 stone flakes, 15 pebbles, and five charcoal fragments.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

The NMSU property manager and representatives from the Chancellor's office confirmed that there were no utility or transmission lines, no anticipated development, and that the site could be monitored by the property manager.

“The NMSU property manager and representatives from the Chancellor's office confirmed that there were no utility or transmission lines, no anticipated development, and that the site could indeed be monitored by the property manager.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

Throughout the NMSU NAGPRA project, all tribal groups, NMSU Museum personnel, federal agencies, and university administrators shared a common mindset: to put differences aside and work together.

“Throughout the NMSU NAGPRA project, we were able to reach this point because all tribal groups, NMSU Museum personnel, federal agencies, and university administrators shared a common mindset: to”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

These objects were mostly manufactured, used, and discarded in the southern portion of the American Southwest.

“These objects were mostly manufactured, used, and discarded in the southern portion of the American Southwest.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Sharing NAGPRA decision-making processes and implementation through publications helps museums, universities, and cultural heritage organizations refine best practices and support ethical stewardship.

“Finally, sharing NAGPRA decision-making processes and implementation-through publications like this one-helps museums, universities, and cultural heritage organizations refine best practices and support ethical stewardship.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The authors received permits from some culturally affiliated groups who participated in the NMSU NAGPRA project for the publication of the results of the consultation and repatriation processes.

“The authors received permits from some culturally affiliated groups who participated in the NMSU NAGPRA project for the publication of the results of the consultation and repatriation processes.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Visiting the reinterment site with culturally affiliated tribes underscores a key distinction in NMSU's approach compared to that of other institutions, particularly in how the site for the reinterment of culturally unidentified human remains was selected through in-person, collaborative decisionmaking on university-owned land.

“Visiting the reinterment site with culturally affiliated tribes underscores a key distinction in NMSU's approach compared to that of other institutions-particularly in how the site for the reinterment of culturally unidentified human remains was selected through in-person, collaborative decisionmaking on university-owned land.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.

Even before applying for a Consultation/Documentation grant, proactively reaching out to Native American tribes helps build trust and fosters smoother consultation and repatriation processes.

“Even before applying for a Consultation/Documentation grant, proactively reaching out to Native American tribes helps build trust and fosters smoother consultation and repatriation processes.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

When people unite around a shared goal, positive outcomes emerge naturally and sincerely, as the NMSU NAGPRA project demonstrates.

“When people unite around a shared goal, positive outcomes emerge naturally and sincerely-as this project demonstrates.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

Students gain meaningful experience with NAGPRA procedures, making them valuable contributors and future professionals in this field.

“Students gain meaningful experience with NAGPRA procedures, making them valuable contributors and future professionals in this field.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The reburial site is located on NMSU-owned land managed by the BLM in Las Cruces, meaning the curatorial institution provided a dedicated space for ancestral remains and belongings.

“The reburial site is located on NMSU-owned land managed by the BLM in Las Cruces, meaning the curatorial institution provided a dedicated space for ancestral remains and belongings.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The National Park Service provides NAGPRA grants-including Consultation/Documentation and Repatriation grants-to assist museums in identifying and repatriating items.

“The National Park Service (NPS) provides NAGPRA grants-including Consultation/Documentation and Repatriation grants-to assist museums in identifying and repatriating items.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.

Clear institutional policies for handling and repatriating Native American cultural materials support compliance and institutional accountability and help facilitate respectful dialogue with tribal partners regarding decisions such as reinterment locations and repatriation leadership.

“These policies not only support compliance and institutional accountability but also help facilitate respectful dialogue with tribal partners regarding decisions such as reinterment locations and repatriation leadership.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

One important strategy implemented in the NAGPRA processes was to trust the students' work while supervising them closely, and the students consulted a bioanthropologist at NMSU when clarification was needed for uncertain classifications or identifications of ancestral remains.

“One important strategy we implemented in our NAGPRA processes was to trust the students' work.While we supervised them closely, they also consulted a bioanthropologist at NMSU when clarification was needed for uncertain classifications or identifications of ancestral remains.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

When challenges arise, organizations such as the NPS NAGPRA Program, regional museum associations, and university-based NAGPRA experts can offer support.

“When challenges arise, organizations such as the NPS NAGPRA Program, regional museum associations, and university-based NAGPRA experts can offer support.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

Documenting the Minimum Number of Individuals, Associated Funerary Objects, and culturally unidentified remains is essential for preparing and submitting the Notice of Inventory Completion.

“These data are essential for preparing and submitting the Notice of Inventory Completion (NIC).”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The in-person setting fostered a more open and engaging dialogue among participants, as indicated by introductions lasting over an hour compared to 15 minutes in the virtual meetings.

“Notably, this round of introductions lasted over an hour, compared to just 15 min in the virtual meetings-highlighting how the in-person setting fostered a more open and engaging dialogue among participants.”