The DOI matches its Crossref record; 57 of the 59 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A critical race analysis of structural and institutional racism: rethinking overseas registered nurses’ recruitment to and working conditions in the United Kingdom
Open accessAbstract
Language tests for overseas registered nurses (ORN) working outside their home country are essential for patient safety, as communication competency needs to be established in any workforce. We argue that the current employment of existing language tests is structurally and institutionally racist and disadvantages ORNs from non-European Union (EU) and non-White countries seeking to work in the United Kingdom. Using Critical Race Theory (CRT), we argue that existing English language tests for ORNs seeking registration in the United Kingdom are discriminatory due to the UK's racist migration policies and a regulatory body for nursing and midwifery that fails to acknowledge and understand its own institutionally racist practices.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Another area of research that we have identified in the international literature that is not well represented in our review is related to bias, discrimination, and racism within the context of complaints, investigation, and disciplinary processes [192,235–246].”
From Nursing regulation in Canada: Insights from a scoping review (2025) · cites this paper as [240]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Making sense of cronbach’s alpha.
Tavakol, M., & Dennick, R. (2011) · International Journal of Medical Education · doi:10.5116/ijme.4dfb.8dfd · Cited by 15,126
Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing
Spolsky, B., & Bachman, L. F. (1991) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.2307/329499 · Cited by 4,359
(2003) · Purdue University Indianapolis (Indiana University) · Cited by 2,976
Trends In International Nurse Migration
Aiken, L. H., Buchan, J., Sochalski, J. A., Nichols, B. L., & Powell, M. (2004) · Health Affairs · doi:10.1377/hlthaff.23.3.69 · Cited by 379
Nurses on the Move: A Global Overview
Kingma, M. (2007) · Health Services Research · doi:10.1111/j.1475-6773.2007.00711.x · Cited by 288
WHO Global Code of Practice on the International Recruitment of Health Personnel
Aistleithner, R., & Pfabigan, D. (2016) · Informationszentrum Lebenswissenschaften (ZB MED) · doi:10.4126/frl01-0064150 · Cited by 234
Ackerman-Barger, K. W., Boatright, D. B., Gonzalez-Colaso, R., Orozco, R., & Latimore, D. (2019) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0000000000003077 · Cited by 205
Projecting shortages and surpluses of doctors and nurses in the OECD: what looms ahead
Scheffler, R. M., & Arnold, D. R. (2018) · Health Economics Policy and Law · doi:10.1017/s174413311700055x · Cited by 186
Second language writing: assessment issues
Hamp‐Lyons, L. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139524551.009 · Cited by 181
Overseas nurses’ experiences of discrimination: a case of racist bullying?
Allan, H. T., Cowie, H., & SMITH, P. (2009) · Journal of Nursing Management · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2834.2009.00983.x · Cited by 122
Linguistic and cultural bias in language proficiency tests
Chen, Z., & Henning, G. H. (1985) · Language Testing · doi:10.1177/026553228500200204 · Cited by 120
Challenges faced by international nurses when migrating: an integrative literature review
Pung, L.-X., & Goh, Y. S. (2016) · International Nursing Review · doi:10.1111/inr.12306 · Cited by 118
Facilitators and barriers to adjustment of international nurses: an integrative review
Kawi, J., & Xu, Y. (2009) · International Nursing Review · doi:10.1111/j.1466-7657.2008.00705.x · Cited by 115
Drawing on antiracist approaches toward a critical antidiscriminatory pedagogy for nursing
Garneau, A. B., Browne, A. J., & Varcoe, C. (2017) · Nursing Inquiry · doi:10.1111/nin.12211 · Cited by 115
The benefits and caveats of international nurse migration
Li, H., Nie, W., & Li, J. (2014) · International Journal of Nursing Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.ijnss.2014.07.006 · Cited by 109
Xiao, L. D., Willis, E., & Jeffers, L. (2013) · International Journal of Nursing Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2013.08.005 · Cited by 105
Guidelines for designing writing prompts: Clarifications, caveats, and cautions
Kroll, B., & Reid, J. M. (1994) · Journal of Second Language Writing · doi:10.1016/1060-3743(94)90018-3 · Cited by 103
Viken, B., Solum, E. M., & Lyberg, A. M. (2018) · Nursing Open · doi:10.1002/nop2.146 · Cited by 88
Allan, H. T., LARSEN, J. A., Bryan, K. L., & Smith, P. M. (2004) · Diversity & Equality in Health and Care · Cited by 87
Experiences of African nurses in the UK National Health Service: a literature review
Likupe, G. (2006) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2702.2006.01380.x · Cited by 86
Test-takers’ perspectives on a global test of English: questions of fairness, justice and validity
Hamid, M. O., Hardy, I. J., & Reyes, V. (2019) · Language Testing in Asia · doi:10.1186/s40468-019-0092-9 · Cited by 81
A critical review of the IELTS writing test
Uysal, H. H. (2009) · ELT Journal · doi:10.1093/elt/ccp026 · Cited by 79
White Identities: A Critical Sociological Approach
Clarke, S., & Garner, S. (2009) · UWE Research Repository (UWE Bristol) · Cited by 76
O’Neill, F. (2011) · International Journal of Nursing Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2011.02.008 · Cited by 76
Overseas nurses’ motivations for working in the UK
LARSEN, J. A., Allan, H. T., Bryan, K. L., & Smith, P. A. (2005) · Work Employment and Society · doi:10.1177/0950017005053177 · Cited by 75
McDowell, L. (2013) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118349229 · Cited by 64
Sex, Race, and Colonialism: An Historiographical Review
Bryder, L. (1998) · The International History Review · doi:10.1080/07075332.1998.9640841 · Cited by 63
Black, Asian and minority ethnic female nurses: colonialism, power and racism
Brathwaite, B. (2018) · British Journal of Nursing · doi:10.12968/bjon.2018.27.5.254 · Cited by 60
Overseas nurses in the National Health Service: a process of deskilling
O’Brien, T. (2007) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2702.2007.02096.x · Cited by 58
The influence of democratic racism in nursing inquiry
Hilario, C. T., Browne, A. J., & McFadden, A. (2017) · Nursing Inquiry · doi:10.1111/nin.12213 · Cited by 57
Mentoring overseas nurses: Barriers to effective and non-discriminatory mentoring practices
Allan, H. T. (2010) · Nursing Ethics · doi:10.1177/0969733010368747 · Cited by 53
Solano, D., & Rafferty, A. M. (2006) · International Journal of Nursing Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2006.07.004 · Cited by 49
Ensnared by Colorblindness: Discourse on Health Care Disparities
Cunningham, B. A., & Scarlato, A. S. M. (2018) · Ethnicity & Disease · doi:10.18865/ed.28.s1.235 · Cited by 46
Challenges in Oral Communication for Internationally Educated Nurses
Lum, L., Dowedoff, P., Bradley, P., Kerekes, J., & Valeo, A. (2014) · Journal of Transcultural Nursing · doi:10.1177/1043659614524792 · Cited by 43
Perceived Racial and Ethnic Prejudice and Discrimination Experiences of Minority Migrant Nurses
Tuttas, C. A. (2014) · Journal of Transcultural Nursing · doi:10.1177/1043659614526757 · Cited by 42
Foreign-Trained Nurses’ Experiences and Socioprofessional Integration Best Practices
Primeau, M., Champagne, F., & Lavoie‐Tremblay, M. (2014) · The Health Care Manager · doi:10.1097/hcm.0000000000000018 · Cited by 39
Martin, P. (2017) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198808022.001.0001 · Cited by 39
Allan, H. T., & Westwood, S. (2015) · International Journal of Nursing Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2014.12.006 · Cited by 36
Recruitment of nurses from India and their experiences of an Overseas Nurses Program
Stubbs, F. (2015) · Nursing in Critical Care · doi:10.1111/nicc.12181 · Cited by 34
Philip, S., Manias, E., & Woodward‐Kron, R. E. (2015) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1111/jocn.12879 · Cited by 32
The rhetoric of caring and the recruitment of overseas nurses: the social production of a care gap
Allan, H. T. (2007) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2702.2007.02095.x · Cited by 28
Internationally recruited neonatal nurses' experiences in the N ational H ealth S ervice in L ondon
Alexis, O., & Shillingford, A. (2014) · International Journal of Nursing Practice · doi:10.1111/ijn.12284 · Cited by 27
Bennett, C., Hamilton, E., & Rochani, H. D. (2019) · OJIN The Online Journal of Issues in Nursing · doi:10.3912/ojin.vol24no02ppt20 · Cited by 24
Language proficiency and nursing registration
Müller, A. (2015) · International Journal of Nursing Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2015.01.007 · Cited by 23
Rumsey, M., Thiessen, J., Buchan, J., & Daly, J. (2015) · International Journal of Nursing Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2015.06.001 · Cited by 20
Gillin, N., & Smith, D. C. (2019) · Nursing Inquiry · doi:10.1111/nin.12320 · Cited by 20
Issues of qualification assessment for nurses in a global market
Wickett, D., & McCutcheon, H. (2002) · Nurse Education Today · doi:10.1054/nedt.2001.0722 · Cited by 19
Sedgwick, C., & Garner, M. W. J. (2017) · International Journal of Nursing Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2017.03.002 · Cited by 19
Recommending a Minimum English Proficiency Standard for Entry-Level Nursing
O’Neill, T. R., Tannenbaum, R. J., & Tiffen, J. (2005) · Journal of Nursing Measurement · doi:10.1891/jnum.2005.13.2.129 · Cited by 19
Non-European nurses’ perceived barriers to UK nurse registration
Allan, H. T., & Westwood, S. (2016) · Nursing Standard · doi:10.7748/ns.30.37.45.s41 · Cited by 14
Woodward‐Kron, R. E., & Elder, C. (2015) · Language Testing · doi:10.1177/0265532215607399 · Cited by 12
An examination of cultural bias in IELTS Task 1 non-process writing prompts: a UAE perspective
Freimuth, H. (2016) · Learning and Teaching in Higher Education Gulf Perspectives · doi:10.18538/lthe.v13.n1.221 · Cited by 11
Editorial: Ethnocentrism and racism in nursing: reflections on the Brexit vote
Allan, H. T. (2017) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1111/jocn.13627 · Cited by 11
Toward an English Proficiency Test for Postgraduates in Malaysia
Abidin, S. A. Z., & Jamil, A. (2015) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244015597725 · Cited by 10
Reflections on whiteness: Racialised identities in nursing
Allan, H. T. (2021) · Nursing Inquiry · doi:10.1111/nin.12467 · Cited by 10
Learning from others: overseas nurses’ views of UK nursing
Allan, H. T., & LARSEN, J. A. (2003) · Nurse Education Today · doi:10.1016/s0260-6917(03)00100-x · Cited by 4
Migrant Health Professionals and the Global Labour Market
Adhikari, R. (2019) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780429325731 · Cited by 4
Research works printed but not linked: 17
- 10.1111/j.1365-2702.2007.02095 · DOI
- Baxter C., 1988, The Black nurse: An endangered species
- Bell D. A., 1995, Who's afraid of critical race theory? David C. Baum Memorial Lectures on Civil Liberties and Civil Rights at the University of Illinois College of Law, University of Illinois Law Review, 1995, 893
- Diangelo R., 2018, White fragility
- Gagen T.(2019).The predictivevalidity ofIELTSScores:A meta‐ analysis[Unpublished master's thesis]. University of Western Ontario. https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=8762&context=etd
- HCL Workforce Solutions, 2017, IELTS and declining nurse recruitment: Don't blame Brexit.
- 10.1111/j.1466-7657.2008.00705 · DOI
- Maranzagov R., 2016, The labour market for nurses in the UK and its relationship to, and supply of, international nurses in the NHS
- Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC), 2017, English language requirements.
- Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC), 2017, NMC Registering as a nurse or midwife in the UK Information for applicants trained outside the European Union or European Economic Area.
- Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC), 2017, Report on English language consultation in October 2017.
- Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC). (2017d).NMC to amend English language requirements for applicants trained outside the UK. https://www.nmc.org.uk/news/press-releases/nmc-amend-english-language-requirements-applicants-trained-outside-the-uk/
- Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC), 2017, List of accepted English speaking countries.
- Reynolds D., 2019, Island stories: Britain and its history in the age of Brexit
- 10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2017.03.002 · DOI
- Shaw S. D., 2007, Modelling facets of the assessment of writing within an ES menvironment, Research Notes, 27, 14
- Taylor L., 2002, Assessing learner's English: But research notes whose/which English(es)?, Research Notes, 10, 18
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Talent management of international nurses in healthcare settings: A systematic review
Zulfiqar, S. H., Ryan, N., Berkery, E., O’Donnell, C., Purtill, H., & O’Malley, B. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0293828 · Cited by 30
Ugiagbe, M., Allan, H. T., Traynor, M., & Collins, L. (2024) · Nursing Inquiry · doi:10.1111/nin.12684 · Cited by 20
Nursing regulation in Canada: Insights from a scoping review
Chiu, P., Thiessen, N. J., Idrees, S., Leslie, K., & Kung, J. Y. (2025) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0323716 · Cited by 12
(Un)wanted bodies and the internationalisation of higher education
Waters, J., Adriansen, H. K., Madsen, L. M., & Saarinen, T. (2024) · Progress in Human Geography · doi:10.1177/03091325241257538 · Cited by 7
Ethical considerations in the UK-Nepal nurse recruitment: Nepali nurses’ perspectives
Ghimire, A., Qiu, Y., Neupane, M. S., & Ghimire, P. (2025) · Nursing Ethics · doi:10.1177/09697330241305574 · Cited by 7
Metadata
- Authors
- Ugiagbe, I. M., Liu, L. Q., Markowski, M., & Allan, H.
- Affiliations
- Department of Adult Nursing, Child Nursing and Midwifery, Centre for Critical Research in Nursing and Midwifery Middlesex University London UK
- Middlesex University London (GB)
- University of Greenwich (GB)
- Venue
- Nursing Inquiry
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2022-07-13
- Volume
- 30
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- e12512-e12512
- ISSN
- 1320-7881 (ISSN-L)
- 1440-1800
- PMC
- PMC10077904
- OpenAlex
- W4285391718
- Cited by
- 17
- References
- 59
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 1
- FWCI
- 4.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Nursing Inquiry (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Middlesex University Research Repository (Middlesex University Of London) (acceptedVersion)
- Greenwich Academic Literature Archive (University of Greenwich) (acceptedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Global Health Workforce Issues
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Healthcare Systems and Challenges
- Social Sciences › Law › Occupational and Professional Licensing Regulation
- Keywords
- structural racism, institutional racism, language tests, English proficiency, nurse recruitment, working conditions, migration policy, critical race theory, nursing regulation, patient safety, communication skills, United Kingdom
- MeSH terms
- Systemic Racism, Working Conditions, United Kingdom, Humans, Nurses, Nurses, International
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review