Relationship between self‐esteem, perception of gender and attitudes towards dating violence among university students
Open accessAbstract
PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between self-esteem, perception of gender, and attitudes towards dating violence among university students. DESIGN AND METHODS: This descriptive study with a correlational and cross-sectional design was conducted with the participation of 686 university students. FINDINGS: Mother's educational level, gender, having a dating relationship, being exposed to dating violence in the relationship, perception of gender, self-esteem, and being exposed to/witnessing sexual/domestic violence were determined to be statistically significant predictive factors of the attitudes of the students towards dating violence. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: Nurses should plan evidence-based and individualized counseling services for young people who are the victims of dating violence by considering possible risk factors.
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This cross-sectional study of 686 Turkish university students examined how self-esteem and gender perception relate to attitudes toward dating violence. It found that gender perception, self-esteem, and several demographic and violence-exposure variables were significant predictors of those attitudes.
Key findings
- The mean Dating Violence Attitude Scale (DVAS) total score was 3.41 ± 0.842; subscale means were 4.24 ± 0.805 for general violence, 4.00 ± 0.822 for physical violence, 3.79 ± 0.808 for emotional violence, 3.65 ± 0.755 for economic violence, and 3.41 ± 0.841 for sexual violence. Higher DVAS scores indicate attitudes less supportive of dating violence.
- The mean Perception of Gender Scale score was 82.48 ± 15.90, and the mean Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory score was 58.23 ± 16.33.
- DVAS scores correlated positively with gender perception (r = 0.340, p < 0.001) and weakly positively with self-esteem (r = 0.113, p < 0.001).
- In multivariate regression, seven variables significantly predicted DVAS scores; the paper states these explained 44.80% of the variance, while the table reports R = 0.448 and adjusted R² = 0.190. Significant predictors included mother’s education, gender, having a dating relationship, exposure to dating violence, gender perception, self-esteem, and exposure to/witnessing domestic violence. Positive relationships were reported for mother’s education, having a dating relationship, dating violence exposure, gender perception, and self-esteem; negative relationships were reported for gender and domestic violence exposure/witnessing (p < 0.01).
Methods
- Descriptive, correlational, cross-sectional design conducted at one state university during the 2017–2018 academic year. The sample comprised 686 students who had a current or past dating relationship; mean age was 21.20 ± 1.86 years, and 54.4% were male.
- Data were collected with a Personal Information Form, the DVAS, the Perception of Gender Scale, and the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory.
- Analyses used SPSS 21 and included descriptive statistics, independent-samples t-tests, one-way ANOVA with Tukey’s b post hoc comparisons, Pearson correlation, and multivariate linear regression, with significance set at p < 0.05.
Limitations
- The paper states that results lack generalizability because the sample consisted only of Turkish university students, and that findings may have been affected by conducting the study in only one setting.
- Evident from the text: the cross-sectional design cannot establish causality; all measures were self-reported; the sample was restricted to students with dating relationship experience; and the regression variance explanation is inconsistently reported between the narrative and the table.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
1 of 3 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
Gender stereotypes are a vital component that causes people to resort to dating violence.
“it is emphasized that stereotypes related to gender are a vital component that causes people to resort to dating violence.19”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [19] 19. Reyes HLM, Foshee VA, Niolon PH, Reidy DE, Hall JE. Gender role attitudes and male adolescent dating violence perpetration: nor- mative beliefs as moderators. J Youth Adolesc. 2016;45(2):350-360. source
The Discussion reports that traditional gender role attitudes predicted later dating violence perpetration among boys who accepted dating violence, but not among boys who rejected it (page unavailable). The claim overstates this conditional association as a general cause of dating violence among people. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Findingown data
The mean score of the General Violence dimension of DVAS was 4.24 ± 0.805.
“The mean scores of the General Violence, Physical Violence, Emotional Violence, Economic Violence, and Sexual Violence dimensions of DVAS were 4.24 ± 0.805, 4.00 ± 0.822, 3.79 ± 0.808, 3.65 ± 0.755, and 3.41 ± 0.841, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The mean score of the Physical Violence dimension of DVAS was 4.00 ± 0.822.
“The mean scores of the General Violence, Physical Violence, Emotional Violence, Economic Violence, and Sexual Violence dimensions of DVAS were 4.24 ± 0.805, 4.00 ± 0.822, 3.79 ± 0.808, 3.65 ± 0.755, and 3.41 ± 0.841, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The students' DVAS total mean score was 3.41 ± 0.842.
“The students' DVAS total mean score was 3.41 ± 0.842.”
- Also stated in: § 5 | CONCLUSION · plain
“The students' DVAS mean score was found to be 3.41 ± 0.842.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Also stated in: § 5 | CONCLUSION · plain
- Findingown data
The mean score of the Sexual Violence dimension of DVAS was 3.41 ± 0.841.
“The mean scores of the General Violence, Physical Violence, Emotional Violence, Economic Violence, and Sexual Violence dimensions of DVAS were 4.24 ± 0.805, 4.00 ± 0.822, 3.79 ± 0.808, 3.65 ± 0.755, and 3.41 ± 0.841, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Findingown data
The students' social perception of gender mean score was 82.48 ± 15.90.
“the young individuals' social perception of gender mean score was determined to be 82.48 ± 15.90.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The mean score of the Economic Violence dimension of DVAS was 3.65 ± 0.755.
“The mean scores of the General Violence, Physical Violence, Emotional Violence, Economic Violence, and Sexual Violence dimensions of DVAS were 4.24 ± 0.805, 4.00 ± 0.822, 3.79 ± 0.808, 3.65 ± 0.755, and 3.41 ± 0.841, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The mean score of the Emotional Violence dimension of DVAS was 3.79 ± 0.808.
“The mean scores of the General Violence, Physical Violence, Emotional Violence, Economic Violence, and Sexual Violence dimensions of DVAS were 4.24 ± 0.805, 4.00 ± 0.822, 3.79 ± 0.808, 3.65 ± 0.755, and 3.41 ± 0.841, respectively.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Female participants had statistically significantly higher DVAS scores than male participants (p < 0.05).
“It was determined that the female participants, those living with their family, those whose mothers were university graduates, those without a dating relationship, those who did not experience dating violence and those who were not exposed to domestic violence had higher attitudes towards dating violence on a statistically significant level in comparison to the other groups (p < 0.05; Table 3).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Social perception of gender had a positive relationship with DVAS scores (p < 0.01).
“it was determined that there was a positive relationship between the students' DVAS scores and mother's educational level, having a dating relationship, being exposed to dating violence and between social perception of gender and self-esteem, as well as a negative relationship between gender and being exposed to/witnessing domestic violence (p < 0.01).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Students whose mothers were university graduates had statistically significantly higher DVAS scores than other groups (p < 0.05).
“It was determined that the female participants, those living with their family, those whose mothers were university graduates, those without a dating relationship, those who did not experience dating violence and those who were not exposed to domestic violence had higher attitudes towards dating violence on a statistically significant level in comparison to the other groups (p < 0.05; Table 3).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
There was a weak and positive correlation between DVAS and CSEI scores (r = 0.113, p < 0.001).
“a weak and positive correlation (r 2 = 0.113, p < 0.001) was identified between their DVAS and CSEI scores”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Students who did not experience dating violence had statistically significantly higher DVAS scores than those who did (p < 0.05).
“It was determined that the female participants, those living with their family, those whose mothers were university graduates, those without a dating relationship, those who did not experience dating violence and those who were not exposed to domestic violence had higher attitudes towards dating violence on a statistically significant level in comparison to the other groups (p < 0.05; Table 3).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Gender had a negative relationship with DVAS scores (p < 0.01).
“it was determined that there was a positive relationship between the students' DVAS scores and mother's educational level, having a dating relationship, being exposed to dating violence and between social perception of gender and self-esteem, as well as a negative relationship between gender and being exposed to/witnessing domestic violence (p < 0.01).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Students who were not exposed to domestic violence had statistically significantly higher DVAS scores than those who were (p < 0.05).
“It was determined that the female participants, those living with their family, those whose mothers were university graduates, those without a dating relationship, those who did not experience dating violence and those who were not exposed to domestic violence had higher attitudes towards dating violence on a statistically significant level in comparison to the other groups (p < 0.05; Table 3).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Students living with their family had statistically significantly higher DVAS scores than other groups (p < 0.05).
“It was determined that the female participants, those living with their family, those whose mothers were university graduates, those without a dating relationship, those who did not experience dating violence and those who were not exposed to domestic violence had higher attitudes towards dating violence on a statistically significant level in comparison to the other groups (p < 0.05; Table 3).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Mother's educational level had a positive relationship with DVAS scores (p < 0.01).
“it was determined that there was a positive relationship between the students' DVAS scores and mother's educational level, having a dating relationship, being exposed to dating violence and between social perception of gender and self-esteem, as well as a negative relationship between gender and being exposed to/witnessing domestic violence (p < 0.01).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Having a dating relationship had a positive relationship with DVAS scores (p < 0.01).
“it was determined that there was a positive relationship between the students' DVAS scores and mother's educational level, having a dating relationship, being exposed to dating violence and between social perception of gender and self-esteem, as well as a negative relationship between gender and being exposed to/witnessing domestic violence (p < 0.01).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Students without a dating relationship had statistically significantly higher DVAS scores than those with a dating relationship (p < 0.05).
“It was determined that the female participants, those living with their family, those whose mothers were university graduates, those without a dating relationship, those who did not experience dating violence and those who were not exposed to domestic violence had higher attitudes towards dating violence on a statistically significant level in comparison to the other groups (p < 0.05; Table 3).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Being exposed to/witnessing domestic violence had a negative relationship with DVAS scores (p < 0.01).
“it was determined that there was a positive relationship between the students' DVAS scores and mother's educational level, having a dating relationship, being exposed to dating violence and between social perception of gender and self-esteem, as well as a negative relationship between gender and being exposed to/witnessing domestic violence (p < 0.01).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Self-esteem had a positive relationship with DVAS scores (p < 0.01).
“it was determined that there was a positive relationship between the students' DVAS scores and mother's educational level, having a dating relationship, being exposed to dating violence and between social perception of gender and self-esteem, as well as a negative relationship between gender and being exposed to/witnessing domestic violence (p < 0.01).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
There was a positive and moderate-level correlation between DVAS and PGS scores (r = 0.340, p < 0.001).
“a positive and moderate-level correlation (r 2 = 0.340, p < 0.001) was found between the students' DVAS and PGS scores”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Being exposed to dating violence had a positive relationship with DVAS scores (p < 0.01).
“it was determined that there was a positive relationship between the students' DVAS scores and mother's educational level, having a dating relationship, being exposed to dating violence and between social perception of gender and self-esteem, as well as a negative relationship between gender and being exposed to/witnessing domestic violence (p < 0.01).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductown data
In this study, the Cronbach's alpha coefficient of the Dating Violence Attitude Scale was 0.82.
“In this study, the Cronbach's alpha coefficient of the scale was found as 0.82.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
There was a relationship between domestic violence history and dating violence.
“In this study, a relationship was found between domestic violence history and dating violence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The young individuals' Perception of Gender Role was above average.
“This score suggested that the young individuals' Perception of Gender Role was above average.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationnone given
The results may have been affected by the fact that the study was conducted in only one setting.
“Second, the results may have been affected by the fact that the study was conducted in only one setting”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
Mother's educational level was a factor that had an effect on attitudes towards dating violence.
“In this study, it was found that mother's educational level was a factor that had an effect on attitudes towards dating violence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Perception of gender constituted a risk factor for dating violence.
“When the results were evaluated, it was seen that perception of gender constituted a risk factor for dating violence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The students' self-esteem was not very high.
“This result indicated that the students' self-esteem was not very high.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
Male students supported dating violence more than female students.
“it was determined that gender was a factor affecting the attitudes towards dating violence, and the male students supported dating violence more.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Self-esteem has an impact on dating violence.
“Hence, it may be stated that self-esteem has an impact on dating violence, and young individuals should be evaluated comprehensively by considering possible risk factor.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The results lack generalizability because the sample comprised only Turkish university students.
“First, the results lack generalizability because the sample comprised only Turkish university students.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
- May combine two claims. 4
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 4
The quote only partly states this claim.
Findingown dataThe students' CSEI total mean score was 58.23 ± 16.33.
“the students' self-esteem mean score was determined as 58.23 ± 16.33.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataSeven independent variables significantly predicted DVAS, with all variables explaining 44.80% of its variance.
“The results shown in Table 5 suggested that seven independent variables significantly predicted DVAS, with all variables explaining 44.80% of its variance.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataIn this study, the Cronbach's alpha coefficient of the Perception of Gender Scale was 0.83.
“In this study, the Cronbach's alpha coefficient of the scale was found to be 0.83.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown dataIn this study, the Cronbach's alpha coefficient of the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory was 0.80.
“In this study, the Cronbach's alpha coefficient of the scale was found as 0.80.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoningThe minimum sample size was determined using a formula, resulting in a target of 372 male and 314 female students.
“minimum number of the students in the sample, the formula n = N × t 2 ×σ 2 /d 2 (N -1) + t 2 × σ 2 was used.Accordingly, the number of the male students to be included in the sample was determined as 372, and the number of the female students was determined as 314.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationDating violence leads to serious and usually lifelong problems on the physical, psychological, and social functioning of the youth.
“Dating violence leads to serious and usually lifelong problems on the physical, psychological, and social functioning of the youth.10”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [10] 10. Çakır-Koçak Y, Öztürk-Can H. Dating violence: description, classi- fication and evaluation. In: Özbaşaran F, ed. Gender Role ve Women. Vol 1. Ankara: Turkey Clınıcs; 2019:43-53.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationIndividuals with low self-esteem have more negative characteristics, avoid close relationships, have problems trusting others, and do not establish loving or friendly relationships.
“It is seen that individuals with low selfesteem have more negative characteristics, they avoid close relationships, they have problems in trusting others, and they do not establish loving or friendly relationships.20”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [20] 20. Çam OM, Engin E, Uğuryol M. Ego development and sense of trust in university students. J Int Soc Res. 2017;10:509-514.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
The quote only partly states this claim.
InterpretationcitationBeing exposed to dating violence affected attitudes towards dating violence.
“Another risk factor for dating violence is related to one's being exposed to dating violence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataHaving a dating relationship affected attitudes towards dating violence, and those with a dating relationship supported dating violence.
“On the other hand, it was determined that having a dating relationship affected attitudes towards dating violence, and those with a dating relationship supported dating violence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
There is no study investigating the relationship between dating violence and social perception of gender and self-esteem.
“Although there is a great number of studies on dating violence, which is becoming more prevalent and threatening public health 5,9 it is seen that there is no study investigating its relationship to social perception of gender and selfesteem.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Dating violence is ignored both in research and on a social level.
“It is thought that despite the serious effects of dating violence on young individuals, it is ignored both in research and on a social level.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Understanding the factors related to dating violence correctly and on a sufficient level is a prerequisite for planning and realization of prevention and intervention programs in an effective way.
“Understanding the factors related to dating violence correctly and on a sufficient level is a prerequisite for planning and realization of prevention and intervention programs in an effective way.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Overall DVAS mean conflicts with both gender-group means
MajorThe female and male groups have DVAS means of 3.96 and 3.84 and together account for the tabulated participants. Their combined mean is about 3.89, so the reported overall mean of 3.41 cannot be correct alongside those group means.
“The students' DVAS total mean score was 3.41 ± 0.842.”
“Gender Female 312 45.6 3.96 ± 0.533 4.36 ± 0.643 4.11 ± 0.76 3.90 ± 0.77 3.76 ± 0.74 3.49 ± 0.75 Male 372 54.4 3.84 ± 0.663”
Negative regression coefficient is assigned to the wrong exposure
MajorThe results describe a negative regression relationship for domestic-violence exposure. Table 5 instead labels the negative coefficient as exposure to violence in a dating relationship, and its other dating-violence exposure coefficient is positive; it lists no domestic-violence predictor.
“as well as a negative relationship between gender and being exposed to/witnessing domestic violence (p < 0.01).”
“Being exposed to dating violence 0.727 0.126 0.541 5.751 <0.001 Being exposed to violence in a dating relationship -0.568 0.130 -0.409 -4.373 <0.001”
Observed subscale scores fall below their stated minimum
MinorThe scale description sets 1 as the minimum item score, and Table 2 gives both subscales a score interval starting at 1. Yet it reports observed minimum scores of 0.88 for economic and sexual violence.
“Economic Violence 3.65 ± 0.755 0.88-4.5 1-5 Sexual Violence 3.41 ± 0.841 0.88-4.5 1-5”
“According to this scoring, the maximum score to be obtained from each item is 5, and the minimum possible score is 1.”
Several named regression predictors do not meet the claimed p threshold
MinorThe text gives p < 0.01 for the listed relationships, but Table 5 reports p = 0.041 for gender, 0.039 for mother's education, and 0.025 for having a dating relationship. These meet the paper's stated 0.05 threshold, not 0.01.
“a positive relationship between the students' DVAS scores and mother's educational level, having a dating relationship, being exposed to dating violence and between social perception of gender and self-esteem, as well as a negative relationship between gender and being exposed to/witnessing domestic violence (p < 0.01).”
“Gender -0.088 0.044 -0.073 -2.045 0.041 Place -0.023 0.029 -0.027 -0.791 0.429 Mother education level 0.053 0.026 0.076 2.072 0.039 Father education levels -0.013 0.020 -0.024 -0.656 0.512 Having a dating relationship 0.103 0.046 0.082 2.243 0.025”
Correlation matrix gives different values for the same pairs
MinorA correlation matrix must be symmetric. Here, the entries for variables 1 and 3 are 0.163 and 0.113 depending on which side of the diagonal is read; the same two values are swapped for variables 2 and 3.
“1 1 0.340** 0.163** 2 0.340** 1 0.113**”
“3 0.113** 0.163** 1”
Percentage for ages 21-22 does not match the count
MinorThe 266 students in this age group would be 38.8% of the stated 686 participants, not 38.1%. Using the 684 participants accounted for in Table 3 would give about 38.9%.
Reported 38.1 · recomputed 38.77551
“21-22 266 38.1 3.92 ± 0.564”
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Lifestyle and Violence among Dating in University Students
Provecho, A. B. A., Cid‐Expósito, M., Losa‐Iglesias, M. E., et al. (2023) · Perspectives In Psychiatric Care · doi:10.1155/2023/8468791 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Coppola, I., Tironi, M., Berlin, E., et al. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15101373 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Yılmaz, E. B., & Şahin, E. (2021) · Perspectives In Psychiatric Care · doi:10.1111/ppc.12920 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Acosta, D. F., Nunes, P. D. A., Calcagno, S. C., et al. (2021) · Revista Eletrônica de Enfermagem · doi:10.5216/ree.v23.66038 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Laurencio, D. L., Gervas, I., & Nyinondi, O. S. (2024) · International Journal of Research Studies in Education · doi:10.5861/ijrse.2024.24073
Yücesoy, H., & Erbil, N. (2025) · Perspectives in psychiatric care · doi:10.1155/ppc/6501429
Dating Violence Among Women and Female-Assigned-at-Birth University Students in Hanoi, VietnamPreprint
Nguyen, L. H. A., Miedema, S. S., Gilmore, A., Yount, K. M., & Anh, H. T. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.7186138
- Authors
- Alp Yilmaz, F., & Şener Taplak, A.
- Affiliations
- Faculty of Health Sciences Bozok University Yozgat Turkey
- Venue
- Perspectives in Psychiatric Care
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2020-10-13
- Volume
- 57
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 911-919
- ISSN
- 0031-5990 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3092033938
- Semantic Scholar
- 8b058e31c0c9e951dcfba57843c08015f4695d70
- Cited by
- 11
- References
- 22
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 1 · 2021: 2
- FWCI
- 0.41
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Perspectives In Psychiatric Care (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Intimate Partner and Family Violence
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Sexual Assault and Victimization Studies
- Social Sciences › Demography › Elder Abuse and Neglect
- Keywords
- self-esteem, gender perception, dating violence, university students, sexual violence, domestic violence, risk factors, nursing counseling
- MeSH terms
- Intimate Partner Violence, Adolescent, Attitude, Cross-Sectional Studies, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Perception, Students, Universities
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-11.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-11.
Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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