Cited by 310Noise Effects and ManagementAcoustic Wave Phenomena ResearchAerodynamics and Acoustics in Jet Flows

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Tutorial on sound propagation outdoors

Embleton, Tony F. W.·1996·The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America

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Abstract

Concerns about noise in the community date back to the dawn of recorded history. Then, after centuries of relatively little activity, scientific interest grew during the 17th century and social concerns were again voiced during the 19th century. Many of the wave-propagation mechanisms relevant outdoors were understood at least qualitatively by the late 1800s. Today, knowledge of sound propagation phenomena is of great economic and social importance because of environmental and other concerns. Reality is more complicated than geometrical spreading above flat ground. Some grounds are acoustically hard like concrete, and others soft as snow. Corresponding reflection coefficients are complex and vary with angle. Grounds may not be flat, leading to shadow zones or alternatively multiple reflections at the ground. Gradients of wind or temperature refract waves either upwards (upwind or in a temperature lapse) or downwards (downwind or in a temperature inversion). Atmospheric turbulence causes fluctuations in the acoustical effects. Many of these features mutually interact. Measured sound pressure levels owe as much to near-surface weather and to ground shape and impedance as to acoustical factors such as source and receiver heights and their separation. This tutorial paper emphasizes field measurements and simple physical interpretations.

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“The sound absorption above ground is a complex combination of effects involving, amongst others, the interference of incident and reflected waves, the reflection coefficient, geometrical spreading, as well as surface and non-geometrical waves (Embleton, 1996).”
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“The n ise of a car spreads from lower to upper heights [27] and directly affects urban residents [28].”
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“The chart is nonetheless reproduced in Figure 3 of Maekawa [1968] and was commonly cited before Maekawa’s empirical relation became popular [e.g. Ettouney and Fricke 1973; Jonasson 1972; Purcell 1957; Scholes et al. 1971].”
BackgroundMethod
Landscaping for road traffic noise abatement: Model validation
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Authors: Embleton, T. F. W.
Affiliations: 80 Sheardown Drive, Box 786, Nobleton, Ontario L0G 1N0, Canada
Corresponding author: Embleton, Tony F. W.
Venue: The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
Publisher: Acoustical Society of America (ASA)
Published: 1996-07-01
Volume: 100
Issue: 1
Pages: 31-48
ISSN: 0001-4966 (ISSN-L)
1520-8524
DOI: 10.1121/1.415879
OpenAlex: W2057468008
Cited by: 310
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 11 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 18 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 14
FWCI: 30.62
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America (publishedVersion)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Acoustics and Ultrasonics › Noise Effects and Management
Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Acoustics and Ultrasonics › Acoustic Wave Phenomena Research
Physical Sciences › Engineering › Aerospace Engineering › Aerodynamics and Acoustics in Jet Flows
Keywords: outdoor sound propagation, ground effect, ground impedance, shadow zone, atmospheric refraction, wind gradients, temperature inversion, atmospheric turbulence, sound pressure level, field measurements, community noise

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