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Physiological Capacity and Training Routines of Elite Cross-Country Skiers: Approaching the Upper Limits of Human Endurance
Open accessAbstract
Cross-country (XC) skiing is one of the most demanding of endurance sports, involving protracted competitions on varying terrain employing a variety of skiing techniques that require upper- and/or lower-body work to different extents. Through more effective training and extensive improvements in equipment and track preparation, the speed of cross-country ski races has increased more than that of any other winter Olympic sport, and, in addition, new types of racing events have been introduced. To a certain extent this has altered the optimal physiological capacity required to win, and the training routines of successful skiers have evolved accordingly. The long-standing tradition of researchers working closely with XC-ski coaches and athletes to monitor progress, improve training, and refine skiing techniques has provided unique physiological insights revealing how these athletes are approaching the upper limits of human endurance. This review summarizes current scientific knowledge concerning the demands involved in elite XC skiing, as well as the physiological capacity and training routines of the best athletes.
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“These characteristics highlight the critical role of carbohydrates in fueling repeated high‐intensity efforts, explaining the predominance of carbohydrate oxidation at the intensities (> 75% V̇O2max) sustained in most competitive events, including cross‐country skiing and biathlon [8, 9].”
From Carbohydrate Storage and Supplementation Strategies for Peak Performance in Cross-Country Skiing (2026) · cites this paper as [9]
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“In addition, the instantaneous contribution from anaerobic energy systems during climbs (followed by recovery on descents and drafting in mass starts) or during the end‐spurt may account for up to ~40% in sprint events and 10%–20% in longer distance races [9, 22].”
From Carbohydrate Storage and Supplementation Strategies for Peak Performance in Cross-Country Skiing (2026) · cites this paper as [9]
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Self-citationMaking History in 1 h: How Sex, Aging, Technology, and Elevation Affect the Cycling Hour Record
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“The general references [1,5] were confirmed applicable by [8,30].”
InfluentialKhurtyk, D. V., Dudorova, L. Y., Смірнова, З., et al. (2026) · Scientific Journal of National Pedagogical Dragomanov University Series 15 Scientific and pedagogical problems of physical culture (physical culture and sports) · doi:10.31392/udu-nc.series15.2026.05(205).32
Grivas, G. V., Alkasasbeh, W. J., Trigonis, I., Karakatsanis, K., & Amawi, A. T. (2026) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2026.1878492
“The Norwegian threshold-density model emphasizes frequent exposure to intensities near the LT, which may enhance (Seiler, 2010; Sandbakk and Holmberg, 2017).”
Influentialİlçin, T., & Hazar, S. (2026) · Ankara Üniversitesi Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Yüksekokulu SPORMETRE Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.33689/spormetre.1939757
Metadata
- Authors
- Sandbakk, Ø., & Holmberg, H.-C.
- Corresponding author
- Sandbakk, Øyvind
- Venue
- International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
- Publisher
- Human Kinetics
- Published
- 2017-09
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 1003-1011
- ISSN
- 1555-0265 (ISSN-L)
- 1555-0273
- OpenAlex
- W2578384382
- Cited by
- 196
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 5
- FWCI
- 17.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Winter Sports Injuries and Performance
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
- Keywords
- cross-country skiing, elite athletes, physiological capacity, training routines, endurance, skiing technique, race speed, training monitoring
- MeSH terms
- Biomechanical Phenomena, Competitive Behavior, Doping in Sports, Energy Metabolism, Humans, Motor Skills, Oxygen Consumption, Physical Endurance, Sex Factors, Skiing, Physical Conditioning, Human
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