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The Effect of Exercise on Clinical Depression and Depression Resulting from Mental Illness: A Meta-Analysis
Abstract
The effect of exercise on negative affect has been examined in hundreds of studies. However, the effect of exercise on diagnosed clinical depression has received far less attention. Furthermore, poor methodological techniques predominate and results have been conflicting. A meta-analysis was conducted to investigate the effect of exercise on clinical depression and depression resulting from mental illness. The chosen studies examined the effect of a chronic exercise paradigm (independent variable) on depression (dependent variable). Each study’s variables were coded: design, subjects, exercise, and dependent measure characteristics that could moderate the effect of exercise on depression. Moderator variables were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA). Results from 30 studies showed an overall mean effect of −.72. Therefore, individuals who exercised were −.72 of a standard deviation less depressed than individuals who did not exercise. Moderating variables and implications for the prescription of exercise as an effective treatment for depression are discussed.
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In the citing paper
“Three meta-analyses have looked at the effect of exercise on depression, and all found a benefit.[9][10][11]”
In the citing paper
“The size of the effect of exercise compared with no treatment in the studies we analysed is similar to those found by three previous meta-analyses.[9][10][11]”
In the citing paper
“However, these analyses pooled data from a range of study types that included uncontrolled studies and randomised as well as non-randomised controlled trials.They also pooled data from trials that compared exercise and no treatment with data from trials that compared exercise and other forms of treatment, and they did not explicitly assess the quality of the studies.”
In the citing paper
“Several meta-analyses (Craft 1998;Carlson 1991;North 1990;Lawlor 2001;Stathopoulou 2006;Sjosten 2006) have looked at the effect of exercise on depression and all found that exercise was of benefit.”
From Exercise for depression (2009) · cites this paper as Craft 1998
In the citing paper
“However, three of these reviews pooled data from a range of study types that included uncontrolled studies and randomised as well as non-randomised controlled trials, and pooled data from trials that compared exercise and no treatment with data from trials that compared exercise and other forms of treatment (Craft 1998;Carlson 1991;North 1990).”
From Exercise for depression (2009) · cites this paper as Craft 1998
In the citing paper
“Previous systematic reviews which found that exercise improved depression included uncontrolled trials (North 1990;Craft 1998;Carlson 1991, so the results of these reviews are probably biased in favour of exercise.”
From Exercise for depression (2009) · cites this paper as Craft 1998
In the citing paper
“This was partly consistent with previous meta-analyses in which the length of exercise was the only characteristic related to the effect size for depression treatment [168, 169], and where 9–12 weeks were associated with the largest reduction.”
From Comparative Effectiveness of Multiple Exercise Interventions in the Treatment of Mental Health Disorders: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis (2022) · cites this paper as [168]
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Ellis, N., Crone, D., Davey, R., & Grogan, S. (2006) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466506x122995 · Cited by 81
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InfluentialSelf-citationA randomized clinical trial of exercise to alleviate postpartum depressed mood
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MethodInfluentialLegrand, F. D., & Heuze, J. P. (2007) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.29.3.348 · Cited by 72
“As a matter of fact, in spite of previous meta-analysis by Craft and Landers (1998) or North, McCullagh, and Tran (1990)—all suggesting that chronic exercise is effective in alleviating symptoms of depression—Lawlor and Hopker (2001) more cautiously concluded that “it is not possible to determine…”
Physical Activity: Positive Psychology in Motion
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“In these meta-analytic reviews (e.g., Craft & Landers, 1998), the effects of different exercise types (running, running and walking, walking, nonaerobic activity, and other aerobic activity) were comparable.”
BackgroundPhysical Activity and Mental Health Promotion: The Natural Partnership
Fox, K. R. (2000) · Journal of Public Mental Health · doi:10.1108/17465729200000002 · Cited by 65
Dance/Movement Therapy (D/MT) for depression: A scoping review
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“median (25%, 75%) 128 (65, 232) 36 (0, 82) 92 (57, 132) 90 (27, 151)”
A critical review of exercise as a treatment for clinically depressed adults: time to get pragmatic
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“…offer some compelling literature to support the use of exercise to reduce anxiety (Landers & Petruzzello, 1994; Taylor, 2000), depression (Craft & Landers, 1998; Mutrie, 2000), and stress reactivity (Crews & Landers, 1987; Taylor, 2000) and to improve cognitive functioning (Etnier et…”
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Individualized Web-Based Exercise for the Treatment of Depression: Randomized Controlled Trial
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Latimer‐Cheung, A. E., Ginis, K. A. M., Hicks, A. L., & McCartney, N. (2004) · The Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development · doi:10.1682/jrrd.2003.04.0043 · Cited by 55
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“[7] in their narrative review nor Craft and Landers in their meta-analytic review [6], both of which concerned effects in the general population, were able to provide evidence of such dependence.”
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Randomized trial of a computer-tailored intervention for patients with depression
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“In regard to exercise type, chronic cardiovascular exercise has consistently demonstrated significant reductions in both anxiety (18) and depression (12, 27), while results of resistance training, racquet sports, and flexibility training have been less clear.”
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A genetic perspective on the association between exercise and mental health
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“In addition to its benefits to physical health, many studies indicate that participating in physical activity can also have positive effects on psychological health, such as reducing risk or symptoms of depression [11,12].”
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Physical activity and mental health
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On Aerobic Exercise and Behavioral and Neural Plasticity
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Physiotherapy and Mental Health
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“Exercise may reduce symptoms of depression resulting from mental illness (Craft & Landers, 1998) and has been consistently associated with positive mood by increasing feelings of vigor and reducing tension, fatigue, and confusion (Biddle, 2000).”
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“Furthermore, meta-analyses have shown a moderate to large effect size (ES from 0.5 to 1.1) of exercise on depression (Craft & Landers, 1998; Lawlor & Hopker, 2001; Mead et al., 2008; North, McCullagh, & Tran, 1990; Rethorst, Wipfli, & Landers, 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialPhysical activity and mental health
Crone-Grant, D., & Grant, T. (2000) · A Life in the Day · doi:10.1108/13666282200000029 · Cited by 40
Anxiety, depression, and insomnia
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“Moreover, positive effects of physical activity have also been described for persons with mental disorders, such as depression [17–20].”
BackgroundFactors linked to changes in mental health outcomes among Brazilians in quarantine due to COVID-19
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“Depression is a viable target for public health interventions as physical health and costs of care are significantly higher for older people with depression [14,15].”
BackgroundDecline in physical activity during adolescence is not associated with changes in mental health
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Vitamin D status and its correlation to depression
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“As Craft and Landers (1998) point out, the mean effect size (MES) from published studies (MES¼ 0.91) was nearly twice that from unpublished studies (MES¼ 0.49).”
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Etiological classification of depression based on the enzymes of tryptophan metabolism
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“A large body of evidence supports association of exercise with increased plasma tryptophan and decreased plasma levels of the branched chain amino acids (BCAAs), leucine, isoleucine, and valine [29-33].”
BackgroundInterventions that support novice nurses' transition into practice: A realist review
Melissant, H. C., Hendriks, R. R. A., Bakker, E. J. M., Kox, J. H. A. M., Rietveld, N., Miedema, H. S., Roelofs, P. D. D. M., & Verhaegh, K. J. (2024) · International Journal of Nursing Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2024.104785 · Cited by 44
Dobbels, F., Geest, S. D., Vanhees, L., Schepens, K., Fagard, R., & Vanhaecke, J. (2002) · European Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing · doi:10.1016/s1474-5151(01)00012-3 · Cited by 33
Effect of a single bout of exercise on the mood of pregnant women.
Polman, R. C. J., Kaiseler, M., & Borkoles, E. (2007) · PubMed · Cited by 34
Gibt es einen Zusammenhang zwischen Bewegungsaktivität und psychischem Befinden im Alltag?
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Zhang, Y., Li, G., Zhang, S., Zhou, Y., Lv, Y., Feng, L., & Yu, L. (2025) · Cancer Medicine · doi:10.1002/cam4.70671 · Cited by 38
“In addition, Craft et al. [66] found that five workouts per week were more effective in alleviating depression than two to four workouts.”
Diet, exercise, and mental disorders − public health challenges of the future
Lange, K. W. (2018) · University of Regensburg Publication Server (University of Regensburg) · doi:10.5283/mnhd.12 · Cited by 29
Simple action for depression detection: using kinect-recorded human kinematic skeletal data
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Hopkins, M. E., Sharma, M., Evans, G. C., & Bucci, D. J. (2009) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/a0015632 · Cited by 31
Physical activity and mental health
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Psychomotor Therapy for Patients with Severe Mental Health Disorders
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“On the other hand, there was no difference between different types of exercise [27].”
BackgroundPerna, F. M., Craft, L. L., Freund, K. M., Skrinar, G. S., Stone, M., Kachnic, L. A., Youren, C. G., & Battaglia, T. A. (2010) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2010.9671932 · Cited by 32
“…different from psychotherapy and pharmacological treatment, (c) it appears to equally benefit individuals with mild and severe depression (Craft & Landers, 1998). eXercise and Breast cancer Randomized controlled trials have consistently demonstrated the psychosocial benefits of exercise…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationHoenders, R. H. J., Appelo, M. T., van den Brink, E. H., Hartogs, B. M. A., & de Jong, J. T. V. M. (2011) · The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine · doi:10.1089/acm.2010.0762 · Cited by 29
Cognitive Factors, Engagement in Sport, and Suicide Risk∗
Chioqueta, A. P., & Stiles, T. C. (2007) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811110600897143 · Cited by 29
“Physical exercise, defined as cardio-respiratory or aerobic endurance and muscular strength, has been reported to reduce negative mood states such as anxiety and depression in both clinical (Craft & Landers, 1998) and non-clinical populations (Byrne & Byrne, 1993).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Craft, L. L., & Landers, D. M.
- Affiliations
- Arizona State University (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology
- Publisher
- Human Kinetics
- Published
- 1998-12
- Volume
- 20
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 339-357
- ISSN
- 0895-2779 (ISSN-L)
- 1543-2904
- OpenAlex
- W2160091667
- Cited by
- 480
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 23 · 2014: 18 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 27
- FWCI
- 4.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Physical Activity and Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Treatment of Major Depression
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- physical activity, major depressive disorder, depression, mental illness, exercise training, exercise therapy, negative affect, exercise prescription
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