The DOI matches its Crossref record; 21 of the 21 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
User performance in relation to 3D input device design
Abstract
Based mainly on a series of studies the author conducted at the University of Toronto, this article reviews the usability of various six degrees of freedom (6 DOF) input devices for 3D user interfaces. The following issues are covered in the article: the multiple aspects of input device usability (performance measures), mouse based 6 DOF interaction, mouse modifications for 3D interfaces, free-moving isotonic 6 DOF devices, desktop isometric and elastic 6 DOF devices, armature-based 6 DOF devices, position vs. rate control and the form factors of 6 DOF control handle. These issues are treated at an introductory and practical level, with pointers to more technical and theoretical references.
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Creating in immersive environments can improve spatial understanding ability and creative expression accuracy.
“Research shows that creating in immersive environments can improve spatial understanding ability and creative expression accuracy (43), but traditional tools struggle to provide such experiences.”
From Interface design and interaction optimization for spatial computing 3D content creation and immersive environment generation using Apple Vision Pro (2025) · cites this paper as [43]
Spatial computing devices like Apple Vision Pro possess powerful spatial perception and interaction capabilities, laying the foundation for building next-generation three-dimensional content creation tools.
“Spatial computing devices like Apple Vision Pro possess powerful spatial perception and interaction capabilities, laying the foundation for building next-generation three-dimensional content creation tools (Zhai, 1998; Apple, 2023a,b).”
From Interface design and interaction optimization for spatial computing 3D content creation and immersive environment generation using Apple Vision Pro (2025) · cites this paper as Zhai, 1998
Citations
Cites
Motor Control and Learning: A Behavioral Emphasis
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Passive real-world interface props for neurosurgical visualization
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Galyean, T. A., & Hughes, J. F. (1991) · ACM SIGGRAPH Conference (SIGGRAPH) · doi:10.1145/122718.122747 · Cited by 330
A study in interactive 3-D rotation using 2-D control devices
Chen, M., Mountford, S. J., & Sellen, A. J. (1988) · ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics · doi:10.1145/378456.378497 · Cited by 317
Usability analysis of 3D rotation techniques
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The influence of muscle groups on performance of multiple degree-of-freedom input
Zhai, S., Milgram, P., & Buxton, W. (1996) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/238386.238534 · Cited by 194
Self-citationGalyean, T. A., & Hughes, J. F. (1991) · ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics · doi:10.1145/127719.122747 · Cited by 171
Zhai, S., & Milgram, P. (1998) · ACM SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI) · doi:10.1145/274644.274689 · Cited by 162
Self-citationBalakrishnan, R., Baudel, T., Kurtenbach, G., et al. (1997) · doi:10.1145/258549.258778 · Cited by 140
A study in interactive 3-D rotation using 2-D control devices
Chen, M., Mountford, S. J., & Sellen, A. J. (1988) · ACM SIGGRAPH Annual Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques (SIGGRAPH) · doi:10.1145/54852.378497 · Cited by 139
Human performance evaluation of manipulation schemes in virtual environments
Zhai, S., & Milgram, P. (2002) · doi:10.1109/vrais.1993.380784 · Cited by 106
Self-citationUsing hand position for virtual object placement
Ware, C. (1990) · The Visual Computer · doi:10.1007/bf01900747 · Cited by 81
Inability to reason about an object's orientation using an axis and angle of rotation.
Parsons, L. M. (1995) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.21.6.1259 · Cited by 75
Inability to reason about an object's orientation using an axis and angle of rotation.
Parsons, L. M. (1995) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037//0096-1523.21.6.1259 · Cited by 68
Zhai, S. (1993) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/154193129303700415 · Cited by 51
Self-citationOf mice and menus: designing the user-friendly interface
Perry, T. S., & Voelcker, J. (1989) · IEEE Spectrum · doi:10.1109/6.90184 · Cited by 50
Accuracy of positioning responses as a function of spring loading in a control.
Bahrick, H. P., Bennett, W. F., & Fitts, P. M. (1955) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0041748 · Cited by 43
Knep, B., Hayes, C., Sayre, R., et al. (1995) · ACM SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI) · doi:10.1145/223904.223943 · Cited by 26
Control Feel and the Dependent Variable
Burrows, A. A. (1965) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/001872086500700501 · Cited by 4
Ashlund, S. L. (1993) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 3
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- Orlansky J., 1949, Psychological aspects of stick and rudder controls in aircraft, Aeronautical Engineering Review, 22
- Venolia D., 1993, Proceedings of INTERCHI'93: ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
- Zhai S., 1993, isometric and elastic rate control for manipulation in 3D environments," Proceedings of The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 37th Annual Meeting
- Zhai S., 1993, 2057 Telemanipulator Technology
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Fu, J., Grierson, M., Jiang, R., Fu, S., He, M., & Xu, M. (2025) · Frontiers in Computer Science · doi:10.3389/fcomp.2025.1591289 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Zhai, S.
- Affiliations
- IBM Research - Almaden (US)
- Corresponding author
- Zhai, Shumin
- ORCID
- Zhai, Shumin
- Venue
- ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics
- Published
- 1998-11
- Volume
- 32
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 50-54
- ISSN
- 0097-8930 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2075918384
- Cited by
- 175
- References
- 21
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 1 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 3.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Interactive and Immersive Displays
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Usability and User Interface Design
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Teleoperation and Haptic Systems
- Keywords
- 3D input devices, six degrees of freedom, 3D user interfaces, user performance
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