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"I Hear You, I Feel You": Encouraging Deep Self-disclosure through a Chatbot
Abstract
Chatbots have great potential to serve as a low-cost, effective tool to support people's self-disclosure. Prior work has shown that reciprocity occurs in human-machine dialog; however, whether reciprocity can be leveraged to promote and sustain deep self-disclosure over time has not been systematically studied. In this work, we design, implement and evaluate a chatbot that has self-disclosure features when it performs small talk with people. We ran a study with 47 participants and divided them into three groups to use different chatting styles of the chatbot for three weeks. We found that chatbot self-disclosure had a reciprocal effect on promoting deeper participant self-disclosure that lasted over the study period, in which the other chat styles without self-disclosure features failed to deliver. Chatbot self-disclosure also had a positive effect on improving participants' perceived intimacy and enjoyment over the study period. Finally, we reflect on the design implications of chatbots where deep self-disclosure is needed over time.
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“Trust is an important aspect of relationship building and self-disclosure, both with machines and humans (Lee et al., 2020).”
From My Chatbot Companion - a Study of Human-Chatbot Relationships (2021) · cites this paper as Lee et al., 2020
In the citing paper
“Previous research has shown that a chatbot's level of reciprocity can influence users' willingness to self-disclose as well as the perceived level of intimacy and enjoyment (Lee et al., 2020).”
From My Chatbot Companion - a Study of Human-Chatbot Relationships (2021) · cites this paper as Lee et al., 2020
In the citing paper
“However, contrary findings have also been identified as some studies show evidence that people respond well and disclose more personal information if the chatbot is presented as a bot and can also display emotions [60,61].”
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“Penyampaian informasi di atas disebut sebagai online self-disclosure yang menggunakan Instagram sebagai media penyampaiannya (Lee et al., 2020).”
BackgroundOng, E., Go, M. J., Lao, R., Pastor, J., & To, L. B. (2023) · International Journal of Asian Language Processing · doi:10.1142/s2717554523500170 · Cited by 1
Modified K-Nearest Neighbor Web Based Chatbot as Service and Academic Information School
Natanael, & Mawardi, V. C. (2023) · International Journal of Application on Sciences Technology and Engineering · doi:10.24912/ijaste.v1.i2.755-769
PORTRAIT STUDENTS' SELF-DISCLOSURE IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS PONTIANAK CITY
Halida, H., Wicaksono, L., Syawaluddin, S., Sendayu, F. S., & Dharmayanti, P. A. (2024) · Jurnal Visi Ilmu Pendidikan · doi:10.26418/jvip.v16i2.78570
The effect of chatbots on self-disclosure among users
Wu, S. (2024) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.1201/9781032676043-91
Siyu, M., & Mayu, K. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4866963
Bougar, M. R., Khavasi, S., Khodarahimi, S., Mazraeh, N., Merati, A., Hesam, M., & Alavi, P. S. (2024) · International Journal of Applied Psychoanalytic Studies · doi:10.1002/aps.1887
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“Conver-sational agents, such as chatbots and personal assistants, have surged in popularity due to their ability to engage with users through natural language [41] and their potential to provide cost-effective solutions [27].”
Pika: Designing a Social-Support Agent to Improve Drivers' Experience in Gig WorksPreprint
Xiang, W., Chen, X., Guo, T., Zhou, M., & Chen, S. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5011630
Rebholz, T. R., Koop, A., & Hütter, M. (2024) · Technology Mind and Behavior · doi:10.1037/tmb0000136.supp
di Bona, K., Ijaz, K., & Ahmadpour, N. (2024) · doi:10.2196/preprints.69833
Sato, T., Sano, T., Kumakawa, E., Fujimura, K., & Yamashita, N. (2025) · CHI Conference Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI EA) · doi:10.1145/3706599.3720143
“It is said that people tend to perceive chatbots as social entities because of their anthropomorphism, even when they recognize they are interacting with a computer [14, 15].”
Self-citation“Bring them back to life”: LifeLink Application for Caregivers Dealing with Suicidality
Jha, S., Chan, G., Jewer, S., Agyapong, V. I. O., & Orji, R. (2025) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3706598.3713699
Geng, S., Shimojima, G., Yang, C.-L., Sramek, Z., Norihama, S., Takano, A., Hosio, S. J., & Yatani, K. (2025) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3711103
“Notably, the phenomenon of chatbot self-disclosure of mental issues has been found to elicit a reciprocal effect on users [46], similar to our observations that clients experience positive social influence from peers in group therapy.”
Does the Favorite-Anime-Character-Imitating Chatbot Support a User’s Self-disclosure?
Qin, Z., Yasuo, M., Shan, J., Yamaura, K., & Nishihara, Y. (2025) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-93861-0_9
Designing for Trust: Integrating Self-referencing in Large Language Model-Based Health Coaching
Meywirth, S., Janson, A., & Söllner, M. (2025) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-93976-1_19 · Cited by 2
“Similarly, Lee et al. found that greater self-disclosure by a chatbot led to increased self-disclosure from users, as well as higher enjoyment and intimacy in the interaction [41].”
Navigating Ethical Challenges of AI Chatbots for Sex Therapy
Fu, M., & Chan, W. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198945215.003.0075 · Cited by 1
ToMinHAI at CUI’2025: Theory of Mind in Human-CUI Interaction
Wang, Q., Wester, J., Pafla, M., Lee, M., Weisz, J. D., & Si, M. (2025) · ACM Conference on Conversational User Interfaces (CUI) · doi:10.1145/3719160.3728627
“Studies have also shown chatbots’ human-like ability in eliciting deep self-disclosure from participants, revealing personal and sensitive information during conversations [21].”
CHATBOTS IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE SPEAKING INSTRUCTION: SCENARIOS, CHALLENGES, AND INTEGRATION
Kornytska, Y. (2025) · Věda a perspektivy · doi:10.52058/2695-1592-2025-6(49)-45-51
Chatbots in Higher Education: Supporting Student Engagement and Retention
Abdullah, Z. B. (2025) · Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation/Advances in science, technology & innovation · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-56848-0_9
Aldkheel, A., & Zhou, L. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5400010
Lernende und ihre emotionalen Anliegen in der Interaktion mit Chatbots
Schulz, L., & Schmid-Meier, C. (2025) · merz | medien + erziehung · doi:10.21240/merz/2025.6.09
Watanabe, T., & Masumoto, Y. (2025) · International Conference on Mobile and Ubiquitous Multimedia (MUM) · doi:10.1145/3771882.3773940
“Chatbots that encourage self-disclosure and human-like dialogue enhance engagement [11, 20], reinforcing the potential of our approach.”
Markus, A., Baumann, M., Pfister, J., Carolus, A., Andreas Hotho, A., & Wienrich, C. (2025) · Cyberpsychology Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace · doi:10.5817/cp2025-5-9
“Lee et al. (2020) integrated the persuasion principle of reciprocal self-disclosure into a chatbot that interacted with users.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Lee, Y.-C., Yamashita, N., Huang, Y., & Fu, W.
- Affiliations
- University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
- NTT (Japan) (JP)
- Venue
- Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
- Publisher
- ACM
- Published
- 2020-04-21
- Pages
- 1-12
- OpenAlex
- W3029922759
- Cited by
- 339
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 52 · 2025: 86 · 2024: 60 · 2023: 58 · 2022: 45 · 2021: 32 · 2020: 6
- FWCI
- 49.75
- Type
- conference paper
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (Scientific Research (A) 17H00771)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Social Robot Interaction and HRI
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Marketing › AI in Service Interactions
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Speech and dialogue systems
- Keywords
- chatbots, self-disclosure, reciprocity, human-computer dialogue, small talk, intimacy, enjoyment, chatbot design, long-term interaction
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