zkLLM: Zero Knowledge Proofs for Large Language Models
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The recent surge in artificial intelligence (AI), characterized by the prominence of large language models (LLMs), has ushered in fundamental transformations across the globe. However, alongside these advancements, concerns surrounding the legitimacy of LLMs have grown, posing legal challenges to their extensive applications. Compounding these concerns, the parameters of LLMs are often treated as intellectual property, restricting direct investigations.
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The proof certifies that the served output is consistent with some fixed private weights under the public architecture, without revealing those weights.
“Overall, the proof certifies that the served output is consistent with some fixed private weights under the public architecture, without revealing those weights.”
From Hollow-LLM Attack: Computationally Trivial Weights in Zero-Knowledge Verification of LLM Inference (2026) · cites this paper as [6]
zkLLM proves a 13B-parameter model in under 15 minutes.
“zkLLM proves a 13B-parameter model in under 15 minutes”
From Hollow-LLM Attack: Computationally Trivial Weights in Zero-Knowledge Verification of LLM Inference (2026) · cites this paper as [6]
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Exploring the Limits of Transfer Learning with a Unified Text-to-Text Transformer
Raffel, C., Shazeer, N., Roberts, A., Lee, K., Narang, S., Matena, M., Zhou, Y., Li, W., & Liu, P. J. (2019) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1910.10683 · Cited by 10,929 · see citing works
PaLM: Scaling Language Modeling with Pathways
Chowdhery, A., Narang, S., Devlin, J., Bosma, M., Mishra, G., Roberts, A., Barham, P., Chung, H. W., Sutton, C., Gehrmann, S., et al. (2022) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2204.02311 · Cited by 2,590 · see citing works
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Gemini Team, Anil, R., Borgeaud, S., Alayrac, J.-B., Yu, J., Soricut, R., Schalkwyk, J., Dai, A. M., Hauth, A., Millican, K., et al. (2023) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2312.11805 · Cited by 990 · see citing works
Self-citationPinocchio: Nearly Practical Verifiable Computation
Parno, B., Howell, J., Gentry, C., & Raykova, M. (2013) · 2013 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy · doi:10.1109/sp.2013.47 · Cited by 864 · see citing works
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Open Challenges in Multi-Agent Security: Towards Secure Systems of Interacting AI Agents
de Witt, C. S., Krawiecka, K., Krawczuk, I., Hagag, B., Anderson, W. L., Belcak, P., Bucknall, B., Cai, X., Chopra, A., Cohen, D., et al. (2025) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2505.02077 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Distributed ledger machinery has been proposed as secure coordination devices for AI agents (Sun et al., 2023), but smart contracts and zero-knowledge proofs don’t yet scale to frontier models (Sun et al., 2024).”
Hollow-LLM Attack: Computationally Trivial Weights in Zero-Knowledge Verification of LLM Inference
Gong, C., Liu, B., & Li, M. (2026) · 2026 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP) · doi:10.1109/sp63933.2026.00258
- Authors
- Sun, H., Li, J., & Zhang, H.
- Affiliations
- University of Waterloo (CA)
- University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
- Venue
- Proceedings of the 2024 on ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security
- Publisher
- ACM
- Published
- 2024-12-02
- Pages
- 4405-4419
- ISSN
- 1543-7221 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4405183082
- Cited by
- 55
- References
- 4
- Citations by year
- 2026: 35 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 1
- FWCI
- 16.26
- Type
- conference paper
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security (CCS) (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- NSERC Discovery Grant (RGPIN-2022-03215, DGECR-2022-00357)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Cryptography and Data Security
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Law, AI, and Intellectual Property
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
- Keywords
- zero-knowledge proofs, large language models, LLM auditing, intellectual property
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