The DOI matches its Crossref record; 99 of the 100 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Reading text from computer screens
Open accessAbstract
This paper reviews empirical studies concerning the readability of text from computer screens. The review focuses on the form and physical attributes of complex, realistic displays of text material. Most studies comparing paper and computer screen readability show that screens are less readable than paper. There are many factors that could affect the readability of computer screens. The factors explored in this review are the features of characters, the formatting of the screen, the contrast and color of the characters and background, and dynamic aspects of the screen. Numerous areas for future research are pinpointed.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
The Psychology of Human-Computer Interaction
Card, S. K., Moran, T. P., & Newell, A. (2018) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/9780203736166 · Cited by 4,103
The psychology of reading and language comprehension
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1986) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,056
Software Psychology: Human Factors in Computer and Information Systems
Shneiderman, B. (1980) · CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) · Cited by 677
Software Psychology: Human Factors in Computer and Information Systems
Shneiderman, B. (1980) · CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) · Cited by 617
Review and Analysis of Color Coding Research for Visual Displays
Christ, R. E. (1975) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/001872087501700602 · Cited by 457
Visual perception of rapidly presented word sequences of varying complexity
Forster, K. I. (1970) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03210208 · Cited by 349
Tinker, M. A. (1963) · Iowa State University Press eBooks · Cited by 326
Ergonomic aspects of visual display terminals
Hopkin, V. D. (1981) · Displays · doi:10.1016/0141-9382(81)90047-0 · Cited by 268
The Formatting of Alphanumeric Displays: A Review and Analysis
Tullis, T. S. (1983) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/001872088302500604 · Cited by 232
Readability of Text Scrolled on Visual Display Terminals as a Function of Window Size
Duchnicky, R. L., & Kolers, P. A. (1983) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/001872088302500605 · Cited by 224
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 100 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 24
- BRUCE M. , AND FOSTER , J. J. 1982 . The visibility of colored characters on colored backgrounds in Viewdata displays . Visible Lang. 16 , 382 - 390 . BRUCE M., AND FOSTER, J. J. 1982. The visibility of colored characters on colored backgrounds in Viewdata displays. Visible Lang. 16, 382-390.
- FELKER D. B. 1980. Document design: A Review of the Relevant Research. American Institutes for Research Washington D.C. FELKER D. B. 1980. Document design: A Review of the Relevant Research. American Institutes for Research Washington D.C.
- HARTLEY , J. , AND BURNHILL , P. 1971 . Experiments with unjustified text . Visible Lang. 3 , 265 - 278 . HARTLEY, J., AND BURNHILL, P. 1971. Experiments with unjustified text. Visible Lang. 3, 265-278.
- HELANDER , M. G. , BILLINGSLEY , P. A. , AND SCHURICK , J. M. 1984. An evaluation of human factors on visual display terminals in the workplace . In Human Factors Review, F. A. Muckler, Ed. Human Factors Society , Santa Monica , Calif., pp. 55 - 129 . HELANDER, M. G., BILLINGSLEY, P. A., AND SCHURICK, J. M. 1984. An evaluation of human factors on visual display terminals in the workplace. In Human Factors Review, F. A. Muckler, Ed. Human Factors Society, Santa Monica, Calif., pp. 55-129.
- HODGE , D. C. 1962 . Legibility of a uniform-strokewidth alphabet: I. Relative legibility of upper and lower case letters . J. Eng. Psychol. 1 , 34 - 46 . HODGE, D. C. 1962. Legibility of a uniform-strokewidth alphabet: I. Relative legibility of upper and lower case letters. J. Eng. Psychol. 1, 34-46.
- HODGE , D. C. 1963 . Legibility of a uniform-strokewidth alphabet: II. Some factors affecting the legibility of words . J. Eng. Psychol. 2 , 55 - 67 . HODGE, D. C. 1963. Legibility of a uniform-strokewidth alphabet: II. Some factors affecting the legibility of words. J. Eng. Psychol. 2, 55-67.
- IBM . 1984. Human Factors of Workstations with Visual Displays . IBM Corporation , San Jose , Calif. IBM. 1984. Human Factors of Workstations with Visual Displays. IBM Corporation, San Jose, Calif.
- KAK , A. V. 1981 . Relationship between readability of printed and CRT-displayed text . In Proceedings o{ the Human Factors Society 25th Annual Meeting, R. C. Sugarman, Ed. Human Factors Society, Santa Monica, Calif. , pp. 137 - 140 . KAK, A. V. 1981. Relationship between readability of printed and CRT-displayed text. In Proceedings o{ the Human Factors Society 25th Annual Meeting, R. C. Sugarman, Ed. Human Factors Society, Santa Monica, Calif., pp. 137-140.
- LANCASTER , F. W. , AND WARNER , A. 1985. Electronic publication and its impact on the presentation of information . In The Technology o{ Text: Principles {or Structuring, Designing, and Displaying Text. vol. 2 , D. H. Jonassen, Ed . Educational Technology Publications, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. , pp. 292 - 309 . LANCASTER, F. W., AND WARNER, A. 1985. Electronic publication and its impact on the presentation of information. In The Technology o{ Text: Principles {or Structuring, Designing, and Displaying Text. vol. 2, D. H. Jonassen, Ed. Educational Technology Publications, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., pp. 292-309.
- MADDOX , M. E. 1980 . Two-dimensional spatial frequency content and confusion among dot-matrix characters . Proc. SID 21 , 31 - 40 . MADDOX, M. E. 1980. Two-dimensional spatial frequency content and confusion among dot-matrix characters. Proc. SID 21, 31-40.
- MALLOY , R. 1983 . Videotex brings the world to your doorstep . Byte 8 , 41 . MALLOY, R. 1983. Videotex brings the world to your doorstep. Byte 8, 41.
- MANSFIELD , V. 1985 . Staring at the screen . The Washington Post: A Weekly Journal of Medicine, Health and Psychology 1 , 5 , 10 - 11 . MANSFIELD, V. 1985. Staring at the screen. The Washington Post: A Weekly Journal of Medicine, Health and Psychology 1, 5, 10-11.
- MERRILL , P. F. 1982. Displaying text on microcomputers . In The Technology o{ Text: Principles {or Structuring, Designing, and Displaying Text , D. H. Jonassen, Ed. Educational Technology Publications , Englewood Cliffs, N.J. , pp. 401 - 414 . MERRILL, P. F. 1982. Displaying text on microcomputers. In The Technology o{ Text: Principles {or Structuring, Designing, and Displaying Text, D. H. Jonassen, Ed. Educational Technology Publications, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., pp. 401-414.
- OL~RON , G. , AND TARDIEU , H. 1978. Influence of scrolling up on the recall of texts . In Practical Aspects o{ Memory , M. M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris, and R. N. Sykes, Eds. Academic Press , Orlando, Fla ., pp. 137 - 144 . OL~RON, G., AND TARDIEU, H. 1978. Influence of scrolling up on the recall of texts. In Practical Aspects o{ Memory, M. M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris, and R. N. Sykes, Eds. Academic Press, Orlando, Fla., pp. 137-144.
- REYNOLDS , L. 1982. Display problems for Teletext . In The Technology of Text: Principles {or Structuring, Designing, and Displaying Text , D. H. Jonassen, Ed. Educational Technology Publications , Englewood Cliffs, N.J. , pp 415 - 437 . REYNOLDS, L. 1982. Display problems for Teletext. In The Technology of Text: Principles {or Structuring, Designing, and Displaying Text, D. H. Jonassen, Ed. Educational Technology Publications, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., pp 415-437.
- SAUTER , S. L. , GOTTLIEB , M. S. , ROHRER , K. M. , AND DODSON , V. N. 1983. The well-being of video display terminal users: An exploratory study. Rep. 210-79-0034 , U.S. Department of Health and Human Services , Cincinnati, Ohio . SAUTER, S. L., GOTTLIEB, M. S., ROHRER, K. M., AND DODSON, V. N. 1983. The well-being of video display terminal users: An exploratory study. Rep. 210-79-0034, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Cincinnati, Ohio.
- SEKEY , A. , AND TIETZ , J. 1982 . Text display by "saccadic scrolling ." Visible Lang. 17 , 62 - 77 . SEKEY, A., AND TIETZ, J. 1982. Text display by "saccadic scrolling." Visible Lang. 17, 62-77.
- SENDERS , J. 1977 . An on-line scientific journal . Inf. Sci. 2 , 3 - 9 . SENDERS, J. 1977. An on-line scientific journal. Inf. Sci. 2, 3-9.
- SHURTLEFF , D. A. 1974 . Legibility research . Proc. SID 15 , 41 - 51 . SHURTLEFF, D. A. 1974. Legibility research. Proc. SID 15, 41-51.
- SMITH , D. L. , ED. 1978. Graphic displays: A human engineering guide {or using color in CRT command and control displays. Independent development program C755 , Rep. D66834, Lockheed Missiles & ; Space Co., Space Systems Division, Sunnyvale, Calif . SMITH, D. L., ED. 1978. Graphic displays: A human engineering guide {or using color in CRT command and control displays. Independent development program C755, Rep. D66834, Lockheed Missiles & Space Co., Space Systems Division, Sunnyvale, Calif.
- SPENCER , H. , AND REYNOLDS , L. 1976. Factors , Affecting the Acceptability of Micro{orms as a Reading Medium. Readability of Print Research Unit , Royal College of Art , London . SPENCER, H., AND REYNOLDS, L. 1976. Factors , Affecting the Acceptability of Micro{orms as a Reading Medium. Readability of Print Research Unit, Royal College of Art, London.
- VARTABEDIAN , A. G. 1970 . Effects of parameters of symbol formation on legibility . Inf. Dis. 5 , 23 - 26 . VARTABEDIAN, A. G. 1970. Effects of parameters of symbol formation on legibility. Inf. Dis. 5, 23-26.
- WIGOINS , R. H. 1967 . Effects of three typographical variables on speed of reading . J. Typograph. Res. 1 , 5 - 18 . WIGOINS, R. H. 1967. Effects of three typographical variables on speed of reading. J. Typograph. Res. 1, 5-18.
- WILLIGES , B. H. , AND WILLIGES , R. C. 1981. User considerations in computer-based information systems. NTIS No. ADA 106 194 , Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univ., Blacksburg , Va . WILLIGES, B. H., AND WILLIGES, R. C. 1981. User considerations in computer-based information systems. NTIS No. ADA 106 194, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univ., Blacksburg, Va.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 201–253 of 253
Bachfischer, G., Robertson, T., & Zmijewska, A. (2006) · UTS ePRESS (University of Technology Sydney) · Cited by 2
Theory and practice in visual interfaces for semi-structured document discovery and selection
Loizides, F., Buchanan, G. R., & Mavri, K. (2015) · Information Services & Use · doi:10.3233/isu-150783 · Cited by 2
The effect of line length and passage type on reading speed, comprehension, and user satisfaction
Shaikh, A. D., & Chaparro, B. S. (2005) · Holmes Museum Of Anthropology (Wichita State University) · Cited by 2
The effect of font and display sizes on the readability for mobile devices
Kim, M., Yun, M. H., Ahn, S. H., Kang, Y.-B., Jee, S.-C., Kim, S., Kim, J., & Park, J. H. (2016) · HCI Korea · doi:10.17210/hcik.2016.01.468 · Cited by 2
Factors influence reading from screen of Arabic textbook for learning by children aged 9 to 13
Abubaker, A. A. (2014) · University of Huddersfield Repository (University of Huddersfield) · Cited by 2
Learner Modelling for Individualised Reading in a Second Language
Walmsley, M. (2015) · Research Commons (University of Waikato) · Cited by 2
BARR-C:2018 and MISRA C:2012: Synergy Between the Two Most Widely Used C Coding StandardsPreprint
Roberto Bagnara, A., Michael, B., & Hill, P. M. (2020) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2003.06893 · Cited by 2
A comparative study of second language reading comprehension from paper and computer screen
You, C. (2009) · Cited by 2
Learning strategies used by EFL learners for print and digital reading: Critical reviewPreprint
Al-Amrani, S. N. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4000436 · Cited by 2
CRITERIA AND DESIGN ELEMENTS OF PRODUCT LABEL
Kamil, M. H. F. M., & Jaafar, A. (2015) · Jurnal Teknologi · doi:10.11113/jt.v75.5045 · Cited by 1
A Study of Legibility by Monitor Letter Color with an Eye Tracker
Kim, H.-R., Kim, S., Shin, D.-M., Jeong, H.-Y., Kim, Y.-G., Kim, T.-H., Seo, J.-M., & Jeong, J.-H. (2014) · Journal of Korean Ophthalmic Optics Society · doi:10.14479/jkoos.2014.19.2.279 · Cited by 1
EFFECTS OF DISPLAY MEDIUM AND LUMINANCE CONTRAST ON CONCEPT FORMATION AND EEC RESPONSE
Shieh, K.-K. (2005) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.100.3.943-954 · Cited by 1
Putrianto, N. K. (2022) · Jurnal Rekayasa Sistem Industri · doi:10.26593/jrsi.v11i2.5663.191-200 · Cited by 2
Impact of Skim Reading Based on Different Screen Sizes
Mehmood, S., Mahoto, N. A., Shaikh, A., Alshahrani, H. M., & Reshan, M. S. A. (2021) · Intelligent Automation & Soft Computing · doi:10.32604/iasc.2021.017843 · Cited by 1
Enhancing the Reading Experience: Sonified On-Line Speed-Reading from a PDA Screen Using RSVP
Goldstein, M., Anneroth, M., Sicheritz, K., & Lundberg, T. (2000) · Cited by 1
Evaluating Computer-Assisted Instruction
Bolwell, C. (1998) · Computers and medicine · doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-2182-1_77 · Cited by 1
Methods for Combining Human Factors Research Results Meta-Analysis
Anderson, N. S. (1989) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/154193128903301010 · Cited by 1
Electronic Access to Full Document Text and Images Through Linus
Cherry, L. L., & Waldstein, R. K. (1989) · AT&T Technical Journal · doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1989.tb00079.x · Cited by 1
文書の移動・配置における紙の効果 : 複数文書を用いた相互参照の読みにおける紙と電子メディアの比較
柴田, 博., & 大村, 賢. (2010) · ヒューマンインタフェース学会論文誌 · doi:10.11184/his.12.3_301
Clinical investigations of fixation stability and reading eye movements
Källmark, F. P. (2009) · Figshare
Effects of visual feedback on the temporal aspects of argumentative writing
Mirkoska, V. (2012) · Lund University Publications Student Papers (Lund University)
Hayama, T., Kanai, T., & Kunifuji, S. (2004) · Transactions of the Japanese Society for Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1527/tjsai.19.113
Shieh, K.-K., Chuang, J.-H., & Chen, M.-T. (1997) · Journal of the Chinese Institute of Industrial Engineers · doi:10.1080/10170669.1997.10433343
Digital book reader based on leading text
Minakuchi, M., & Fuyuki, O. (2014) · International Conference on Advances in Computer Entertainment Technology (ACE) · doi:10.1145/2663806.2663863
Color Recommendation for Text Based on Colors Associated with Words
Liba, S., Nakamura, T., & Sakamoto, M. (2012) · Journal of the Korea Industrial Information Systems Research · doi:10.9723/jksiis.2012.17.1.021
Hoque, A. Y., & Lohse, G. L. (2001) · Recherche et Applications en Marketing (French Edition) · doi:10.1177/076737010101600307
The five steps browsing model on computer displays
Hsieh, Y., Lin, C., & Chen, H. (2010) · International Conference on Machine Learning and Cybernetics · doi:10.1109/icmlc.2010.5580900
A usable web for long-stay hospitalised children
Baravalle, A., Beria, A., Guberti, S., Lanfranchi, V., & Pravettoni, G. (2002) · Open Research Online - ORO (The Open University)
Speed Read: An Android Application
Narote, A., Jeyaseelan, A., Kotian, A., & Zacharias, D. (2015)
Educational Handheld Video: Examining Shot Composition, Graphic Design, And Their Impact On Learning
Hutchens, J. S. (2008) · Journal of International Crisis and Risk Communication Research
Information Literacy in the 21st Century
McNaught, C. (2008) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-59904-881-9.ch067
Major Findings, Contributions, and Areas for Future Research
Abubaker, A. A., & Lu, J. (2017) · Advances in information quality and management · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-1884-6.ch013
Bialkowski, V. (2011) · TSpace (University of Toronto)
Usability Exploration of the Visual Textual Imaging
Evreinova, T. V., & Špakov, O. (2003)
An application study on the legibility of characters printed on one-way vision film
Hu, W.-Y., & Liou, J.-Y. (2017) · International Conference on Applied System Innovation · doi:10.1109/icasi.2017.7988261
How do we deliver our findings? Analysis of podium presentations at shoulder meetings
Miquel, J., Santana, F., Barrera, A., & Torrens, C. (2018) · Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery and Research · doi:10.1186/s13018-018-0942-7
Effects of Presentation Quality in Reading
Shibata, H., & Omura, K. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-9476-2_4
Examining Education Students’ Preference for Reading Medium, Resource and Time
Sharma, L. R. (2020) · International Research Journal of MMC · doi:10.3126/irjmmc.v1i1.34116
Improving Polymer Science Asynchronous Online Lecture Contents For Students’ Engagement
Darko, C. (2021) · European Scientific Journal ESJ · doi:10.19044/esj.2021.v17n25p95
(2020) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-78973-151-420201018
(2004) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/9781420025170.bmatt1
Editor, M. F. K. (1995) · Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology · doi:10.21432/t2bg7k
CAD Inspiration for Design Students on the Geometric Modification of Letters
Oluyemi, A. S. (2024) · Journal of Design Studio · doi:10.46474/jds.1461016
Tang, X., Yu, S., Chu, J., Li, F., Fan, H., & Jiang, G. (2024) · Work · doi:10.1177/10519815241290427
An Exploratory Study of Typeface through the Use of CAD Font List
Oluyemi, A. S. (2025) · Journal of Art, Design, and Music · doi:10.55554/2785-9649.1044
Impacts of Font Size and Stroke Width of Chinese Characters on the Legibility Under Vibration
Wang, Y., Yu, R., & Jia, E. (2025) · Springer series in design and innovation · doi:10.1007/978-981-95-0211-0_71
Objective and perceived reading performance: an empirical study comparing reading media and methods
Seo, K., Rhim, J., & Gweon, G. (2026) · Universal Access in the Information Society · doi:10.1007/s10209-026-01325-8
Optimizing user experience by balancing completeness and motion in interactive Chinese characters
Chen, M.-X., You, D., & Li, D. (2026) · International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.ergon.2026.103980
Baumgartner, N. (2004) · Univ. Duesseldorf: Duesseldorfer Dokumenten- und Publikationsserver
Metadata
- Authors
- Mills, C. B., & Weldon, L. J.
- Affiliations
- Goucher College (US)
- University of Maryland, Baltimore (US)
- Venue
- ACM Computing Surveys
- Published
- 1987-12
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 329-357
- ISSN
- 0360-0300 (ISSN-L)
- 1557-7341
- OpenAlex
- W2021346535
- Cited by
- 253
- References
- 100
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 19
- FWCI
- 3.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- ACM Computing Surveys (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Usability and User Interface Design
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Gaze Tracking and Assistive Technology
- Social Sciences › Human Factors and Ergonomics › Ergonomics and Musculoskeletal Disorders
- Keywords
- computer displays, character design, color, dynamic displays, text display
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review