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Photoreceptor Signaling Networks in Plant Responses to Shade
Open accessAbstract
The dynamic light environment of vegetation canopies is perceived by phytochromes, cryptochromes, phototropins, and UV RESISTANCE LOCUS 8 (UVR8). These receptors control avoidance responses to preclude exposure to limiting or excessive light and acclimation responses to cope with conditions that cannot be avoided. The low red/far-red ratios of shade light reduce phytochrome B activity, which allows PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING FACTORS (PIFs) to directly activate the transcription of auxin-synthesis genes, leading to shade-avoidance responses. Direct PIF interaction with DELLA proteins links gibberellin and brassinosteroid signaling to shade avoidance. Shade avoidance also requires CONSTITUTIVE PHOTOMORPHOGENESIS 1 (COP1), a target of cryptochromes, phytochromes, and UVR8. Multiple regulatory loops and the input of the circadian clock create a complex network able to respond even to subtle threats of competition with neighbors while still compensating for major environmental fluctuations such as the day-night cycles.
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“Plants quantify this ratio through the phytochrome system and react with the shade avoidance syndrome that enables plants to outgrow the competitors for light (Casal, 2013; Pierik and de Wit, 2014).”
From Shaping plant architecture (2015) · cites this paper as Casal, 2013
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“Consistent with that in Arabidopsis, the inductions of GA biosynthesis genes (OsGA20ox1 and OsGA20ox2) and the transcriptional regulations of BR responsive genes (OsDWARF and OsBRI) indicate an enhanced GA and BR response under shade in both tissues of rice seedlings.”
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“3 Dear Editor, The PHYTOCHROME B (PHYB) gene, encoding the apoprotein of the major red/far-red photoreceptor phyB, has been one of the most extensively studied genes in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) for the past 2 decades (Casal, 2013).”
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“Arabidopsis and most crops show typical phenotypes of SAR, while some other plants display shade tolerance phenotype mimicking the phenotypes of the plants in the white light condition (Valladares and Niinemets, 2008; Carriedo et al., 2016).”
BackgroundInfluentialShade pretreatment enhanced drought resistance of soybean
Asghar, M. A., Du, J., Jiang, H., Li, Y., Sun, X., Shang, J., Liu, J., Liu, W., Imran, S., Iqbal, N., et al. (2019) · Environmental and Experimental Botany · doi:10.1016/j.envexpbot.2019.103952 · Cited by 34
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Plant Chromatin Catches the Sun
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“…(DET1) and CONSTITUTIVE PHOTOMORPHOGENIC 1 (COP1) proteins that control the stability of photoreceptors and transcription factors, such as the PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING FACTORS (PIFs) and ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL 5 (HY5) (reviewed in Casal, 2013; Galvão and Fankhauser, 2015; Seluzicki et al., 2017).”
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“In plants, the R/FR ratio has long been known as a key factor triggering multiple responses, which are collectively referred to as the shade avoidance syndrome (SAS) (Casal 2013; Ballaré and Pierik 2017).”
InfluentialBrenk, J. B. V., Courbier, S., Kleijweg, C. L., Verdonk, J. C., & Marcelis, L. F. M. (2024) · Frontiers in Plant Science · doi:10.3389/fpls.2024.1383100 · Cited by 33
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“…and- canopy- identity- dependent differences in the understorey light environment we have identified are likely to be of ecological importance for the forest ecosystem (Messier & Belleeur, 1988): for example, through photoreceptor- mediated plant responses (Casal, 2013; Mazza & Ballaré, 2015).”
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“These results are consistent with the common view that plant hormones, and especially auxin, are involved in the shade avoidance response (Casal 2013).”
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Thakur, M., & Kumar, R. (2020) · Industrial Crops and Products · doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2020.113144 · Cited by 32
Low light intensity delays vegetative phase change
Xu, M., Hu, T., & Poethig, R. S. (2021) · PLANT PHYSIOLOGY · doi:10.1093/plphys/kiab243 · Cited by 32
“These results indicate that CRY1 and CRY2 may play no significant role in the response of plants to LL, and also suggest that PHYA and PHYB may have little or no role in this response.”
InfluentialMutual upregulation of HY5 and TZP in mediating phytochrome A signaling
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“Of particular interest in this context are the phytochromes PHYA, PHYB and PHYC [44], most notably PHYB [35], which seems to play a central role in shade avoidance and may even influence flowering [45].”
BackgroundArchitecture and plasticity: optimizing plant performance in dynamic environments
Pierik, R., Fankhauser, C., Strader, L. C., & Sinha, N. R. (2021) · PLANT PHYSIOLOGY · doi:10.1093/plphys/kiab402 · Cited by 31
“PIF activity is inhibited by phytochrome B (phyB) in the sun and shade releases this inhibition leading to PIF-mediated elongation of stem-like structures (Casal, 2013).”
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“As reported by Casal (2013) and Ballaré and Pierik (2017), under shading, the active state of phytochrome B (Pfr) is converted to the inactive state (Pr).”
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Sellaro, R., Durand, M., Aphalo, P. J., & Casal, J. J. (2024) · Journal of Experimental Botany · doi:10.1093/jxb/erae334 · Cited by 30
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“…by plants is a signal characterizing the surrounding environment (neighbouring plants) and capable of inducing morphogenetic responses that allow plants to anticipate the trophic aspects of light competition, such as limitation in photosynthesis (for reviews see Franklin, 2005; Casal, 2013).”
BackgroundPhytochrome B enhances plant growth, biomass and grain yield in field-grown maize
Wies, G., Mantese, A. I., Casal, J. J., & Maddonni, G. Á. (2019) · Annals of Botany · doi:10.1093/aob/mcz015 · Cited by 31
“To describe the light quality environment reaching the base of the plants, measurements of the R:FR were performed at R1 (only in Exp2) using a two-channel radiometer (Model SKR 110, Skye Instruments, Powys, UK) with a cosine-corrected head and narrow band filters centred at 660 (R) and 730 nm (FR).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationLet it bloom: cross‐talk between light and flowering signaling in Arabidopsis
Perrella, G., Vellutini, E., Zioutopoulou, A., Patitaki, E., Headland, L. R., & Kaiserli, E. (2020) · Physiologia Plantarum · doi:10.1111/ppl.13073 · Cited by 31
“Deep plant canopy leads to a decrease in R/FR light ratio, which results in a collection of architectural adaptive responses collectively described as the shade avoidance syndrome (Casal 2013).”
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Far-Red Light Effects on Lettuce Growth and Morphology in Indoor Production Are Cultivar Specific
Liu, J., & van Iersel, M. W. (2022) · Plants · doi:10.3390/plants11202714 · Cited by 31
“A low PPE induces shade response in lettuce, such as leaf expansion, stem elongation, and hyponasty [24].”
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Ethylene Signaling Influences Light-Regulated Development in Pea
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Light quality regulates plant architecture in different genotypes of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat
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Network Analysis Reveals a Role for Salicylic Acid Pathway Components in Shade Avoidance
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“Canopy shade is perceived by phytochrome and cryptochrome photoreceptors that initiate signaling through an extensive signaling network (Casal, 2013).”
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BackgroundThe Photosynthetic Performance of Red Leaf Lettuce under UV-A Irradiation
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“Despite this, phototropins and cryptochromes were both perceived in the blue and UV-A light, and the activation of these photoreceptors can be expected to have similar effects on plant responses [8,9].”
BackgroundPlant tropisms as a window on plant computational processes
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“Motivated by this picture, they found that the local interaction between sunflowers was mediated by the shade avoidance response (a tropic response), where plant organs grow away from shade caused by neighboring plants (Casal, 2013).”
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“Phytochromes therefore regulate responses to R:FR, which can predict competition even before it occurs (Smith, 2000), but other photoreceptors and resource-sensing mechanisms are involved in responses to total irradiance (Aphalo and Ballaré, 1995; Casal, 2013).”
BackgroundA COP1‐PIF‐HEC regulatory module fine‐tunes photomorphogenesis in Arabidopsis
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BackgroundKAI2 regulates seedling development by mediating light‐induced remodelling of auxin transport
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“Shade-intolerant plants can detect the proximity and density of neighboring vegetation through perception of a reduced ratio of red (660 nm) to far red (730 nm) light, which triggers the shade avoidance syndrome (SAS) that includes responses, such as an increase in hypocotyl and internode elongation, extended petioles…”
BackgroundThe fitness benefits of germinating later than neighbors
Leverett, L. D., Schieder, G. F., & Donohue, K. (2018) · American Journal of Botany · doi:10.1002/ajb2.1004 · Cited by 28
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“The activation of photosensory receptors by light triggers responses in several processes during the plant life cycle from seed germination to flowering (Casal, 2013).”
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“They are involved in various physiological processes such as seed germination, photomorphogenesis, shade responses, flowering time, and leaf senescence (Leivar and Quail, 2011; Casal, 2013; Sakuraba et al., 2014).”
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SHADE AVOIDANCE 4 Is Required for Proper Auxin Distribution in the Hypocotyl
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“…phototropism, the photoreceptor kinase PHOT1 phosphorylates ABCB19 and inhibits its efflux activity, which consequently leads to a transient increase in auxin levels in the hypocotyl apex and allows auxin redistribution to the epidermis through PIN3-mediated auxin efflux (Christie et al., 2011).”
BackgroundThe phycocyanobilin chromophore of streptophyte algal phytochromes is synthesized by HY2
Rockwell, N. C., Martin, S. S., Li, F., Mathews, S., & Lagarias, J. C. (2017) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1111/nph.14422 · Cited by 30
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IAA3-mediated repression of PIF proteins coordinates light and auxin signaling in Arabidopsis
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“Light signals are sensed by different types of photoreceptors, including phytochromes, cryptochromes, phototropins, and UV Resistance Locus 8 (UVR8) [2], which perceive different wavelengths and intensities of incoming light [6].”
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Modulation of starch synthesis in Arabidopsis via phytochrome B‐mediated light signal transduction
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“Therefore, we focused on the effects of blue and red light, both of which are sensed by specific photoreceptors in plants [24,25].”
BackgroundWithin- and trans-generational plasticity: seed germination responses to light quantity and quality
Vayda, K., Donohue, K., & Auge, G. A. (2018) · AoB Plants · doi:10.1093/aobpla/ply023 · Cited by 26
“…consistent with distinct responses to different components of the light environment, with phytochrome mediating responses to R:FR, whereas other photoreceptors (likely blue light photoreceptors) appear to mediate responses to total light irradiance (Casal and Sánchez 1998; Smith 2000; Casal 2013).”
BackgroundWang, P., Zhang, H., Yin, Y., Ge, Y., Chen, B., Hu, J. R., Wang, Y., Ni, D., & Guo, F. (2025) · Genome biology · doi:10.1186/s13059-025-03618-2 · Cited by 25
“Phytochromes and UVR8 perceive red/far-red light and UV-B light, respectively [12].”
Genetic and gene expression analysis of flowering time regulation by light quality in lentil
Yuan, H. Y., Caron, C. T., Ramsay, L., Fratini, R., de la Vega, M. P., Vandenberg, A., Weller, J. L., & Bett, K. E. (2021) · Annals of Botany · doi:10.1093/aob/mcab083 · Cited by 25
Lu, J., Xu, Y., Meng, Z., Cao, M., Liu, S., Kato‐Noguchi, H., Yu, W., Jin, B., & Wang, L. (2021) · Industrial Crops and Products · doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2021.114055 · Cited by 25
Light-Engineering Technology for Enhancing Plant Disease Resistance
Wang, D., Dawadi, B., Qu, J. T., & Ye, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Plant Science · doi:10.3389/fpls.2021.805614 · Cited by 25
“…photomorphogenesis to flowering time, as well as shade avoidance, circadian clock, gravitropism, and even more importantly, the defense responses (Correll et al., 2003; Casal, 2013; Pierik and de Wit, 2014; Roig-Villanova et al., 2019; Fernández-Milmanda and Ballaré, 2021; Roeber et al., 2021).”
BackgroundMarenco, R. A., Nascimento, H. C. S., & Magalhães, N. S. (2014) · Photosynthetica · doi:10.1007/s11099-014-0056-3 · Cited by 25
“2B; PAR <4 µmol m–2 s–1; R:FR value <0.25; R:FR = (lnPAR − 0.278)/4.39, Capers and Chazdon 2004).”
BackgroundInfluentialHuang, J., Hammerbacher, A., Forkelová, L., & Hartmann, H. (2016) · Plant Cell & Environment · doi:10.1111/pce.12885 · Cited by 25
“Although shading may be a much simpler approach for reducing plant C availability, it may also trigger phytochrome-induced growth stimulation (Casal, 2013) and defence suppression (Ballare, 2014), independent of C availability.”
BackgroundKim, D., Moon, T., Kwon, S., Hwang, I., & Son, J. E. (2022) · Horticulture Environment and Biotechnology · doi:10.1007/s13580-022-00450-6 · Cited by 25
“Far-red light activates phytochrome-mediated downstream responses called shade avoidance responses, which include stem and petiole elongation and leaf expansion (Casal 2013).”
BackgroundLei, K., Tan, Q., Zhu, L., Xu, L., Yang, S., Hu, J., Gao, L., Hou, P., Shao, Y., Jiang, D., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Plant Science · doi:10.3389/fpls.2022.971003 · Cited by 24
“A low R/FR is detected by the phytochromes family, including the phytochrome B (phyB) which is the key receptor (Sawers et al., 2005; Casal, 2013).”
BackgroundShedding light on kin recognition response in plants
Bais, H. P. (2014) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1111/nph.13155 · Cited by 24
“It is often argued that photosensory signal-mediated aerial growth change, including leaf orientation, add fitness costs to the plant (Casal, 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialMeta‐Analysis of the Transcriptome Reveals a Core Set of Shade‐Avoidance Genes in Arabidopsis
Sellaro, R., Pacín, M., & Casal, J. J. (2017) · Photochemistry and Photobiology · doi:10.1111/php.12729 · Cited by 24
Self-citationEARLY FLOWERING 3 and Photoperiod Sensing in Brachypodium distachyon
Bouché, F., Woods, D. P., Linden, J., Li, W., Mayer, K. S., Amasino, R. M., & Périlleux, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Plant Science · doi:10.3389/fpls.2021.769194 · Cited by 20
“In Arabidopsis, lower red:far-red ratios, which indicate the presence of proximate plants that compete for light exposure, results in the acceleration of flowering (Casal, 2013).”
BackgroundRai, N., Kumari, S., Singh, S., Saha, P., Pandey, A. K., & Rai, S. P. (2023) · Environmental and Experimental Botany · doi:10.1016/j.envexpbot.2023.105563 · Cited by 23
Chromatin State-Based Analysis of Epigenetic H3K4me3 Marks of Arabidopsis in Response to Dark Stress
Yan, H., Liu, Y., Zhang, K., Song, J., Xu, W., & Su, Z. (2019) · Frontiers in Genetics · doi:10.3389/fgene.2019.00306 · Cited by 23
“Shade light with low red/far red ratios triggers hypocotyl growth, petiole elongation, reduced leaf area, hyponastic leaf movement, fewer branches, leaf senescence, and early flowering (Casal, 1996; Cerdan and Chory, 2003; Finlayson et al., 2010; Kozuka et al., 2010; Casal, 2013).”
BackgroundLiu, Y., Zhang, W., Zhang, K., You, Q., Yan, H., Jiao, Y., Jiang, J., Xu, W., & Su, Z. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-04524-9 · Cited by 23
The BBX7 /8‐ CCA1 / LHY transcription factor cascade promotes shade avoidance by activating PIF4
Bian, Y., Song, Z., Liu, C., Song, Z., Dong, J., & Xu, D. (2024) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1111/nph.20256 · Cited by 22
Hu, W. S., Figueroa-Balderas, R. E., Chi‐Ham, C. L., & Lagarias, J. C. (2020) · Plant Direct · doi:10.1002/pld3.210 · Cited by 22
“Triggered when phyB is inactivated by FR light, SARs are suppressed by Pfr-phyB, whereas phyB mutants exhibit constitutive SARs even under direct sunlight (Casal, 2013).”
Zhang, N., van Westreenen, A., He, L., Evers, J. B., Anten, N. P. R., & Marcelis, L. F. M. (2020) · Plant Cell & Environment · doi:10.1111/pce.13812 · Cited by 22
“…this regard, the low red to far-red ratio (R:FR) of light reflected by neighbouring vegetation (i.e., because plant tissues preferentially absorb red- and reflect farred light) is a well-studied signal of neighbour proximity (Ballaré & Pierik, 2017; Casal, 2013; Pierik & De Wit, 2014; Smith, 2000).”
BackgroundShah, A., Tyagi, S., Saratale, G. D., Guzik, U., Hu, A., Sreevathsa, R., Reddy, V. D., Rai, V., & Mulla, S. I. (2021) · Critical Reviews in Biotechnology · doi:10.1080/07388551.2020.1869686 · Cited by 22
“phytochrome exists in two alternatives or spectrally comparable isoforms – (A) Pr, absorbs maximum intensity of RL at 660 nm and (B) Pfr form at the wavelength of 730 nm shows maximum absorbance [96].”
BackgroundLeaf microscopy applications in photosynthesis research: identifying the gaps
Khoshravesh, R., Hoffmann, N., & Hanson, D. T. (2021) · Journal of Experimental Botany · doi:10.1093/jxb/erab548 · Cited by 22
Zhang, Z., Chen, L., & Yu, J. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Botany · doi:10.1093/jxb/erad094 · Cited by 22
Effects of building shade on photosynthesis and chlorophyll fluorescence of Euonymus fortunei
Song, X., & Li, H. (2016) · Acta Ecologica Sinica · doi:10.1016/j.chnaes.2016.05.008 · Cited by 22
“The sensing of this change by plants in turn triggers morphological and physiological responses to enhance growth and survival [13].”
BackgroundGallemí, M., Molina-Contreras, M. J., Paulišić, S., Salla‐Martret, M., Sorin, C., Godoy, M., Franco‐Zorrilla, J. M., Solano, R., & Martínez‐García, J. F. (2017) · New Phytologist · doi:10.1111/nph.14727 · Cited by 21
“Shade-induced changes in PAR expression eventually activate the SAS (Martinez-Garcia et al., 2010; Leivar & Quail, 2011; Casal, 2013; Bou-Torrent et al., 2015).”
BackgroundPlant Responses Under Abiotic Stress and Mitigation Options Towards Agricultural Sustainability
Bera, K., Dutta, P., & Sadhukhan, S. (2022) · Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation/Advances in science, technology & innovation · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-95365-2_1 · Cited by 21
Wu, W., Wang, W., Zhu, Q., Jin, R., Liu, X., Grierson, D. S., & Yin, X.-R. (2022) · Postharvest Biology and Technology · doi:10.1016/j.postharvbio.2022.111977 · Cited by 21
Ain, N. U., Haider, F. U., Fatima, M., Habiba, H., Zhou, Y., & Ming, R. (2022) · Frontiers in Plant Science · doi:10.3389/fpls.2022.839588 · Cited by 21
“A combination of these responses is called Shade Avoidance Syndrome (SAS) (Casal, 2013), which is a survival strategy in plants for the quest for more sunlight and resources.”
BackgroundLi, Y., Zhang, X., Cai, K., Zhang, Q., Jiang, L., Li, H., Lv, Y., Qu, G., & Zhao, X. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms23179556 · Cited by 21
“The lower irradiance in the shade limits photosynthesis [68].”
BackgroundYu, B.-F., Liu, Y., Pan, Y., Liu, J., Wang, H., & Tang, Z. (2018) · Plant Growth Regulation · doi:10.1007/s10725-017-0366-0 · Cited by 21
“2012; Casal 2013; Kanegae and Kimura 2015; Ma et al.”
BackgroundHuang, J., Forkelová, L., Unsicker, S. B., Forkel, M., GRIFFITH, D. W. T., Trumbore, S. E., & Hartmann, H. (2019) · Environmental and Experimental Botany · doi:10.1016/j.envexpbot.2019.03.010 · Cited by 21
Li, L., Wonder, J., Helming, T., van Asselt, G., Pantazopoulou, C. K., van de Kaa, Y., Kohlen, W., Pierik, R., & Kajala, K. (2024) · Physiologia Plantarum · doi:10.1111/ppl.14558 · Cited by 20
BBX24 Interacts with JAZ3 to Promote Growth by Reducing DELLA Activity in Shade Avoidance
Saura-Sánchez, M., Chiriotto, T. S., Cascales, J., Gómez‐Ocampo, G., Hernández‐García, J., Li, Z., Pruneda-Paz, J. L., Blázquez, M. A., & Botto, J. F. (2023) · Plant and Cell Physiology · doi:10.1093/pcp/pcad011 · Cited by 20
Metadata
- Authors
- Casal, J. J.
- Affiliations
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (AR)
- Corresponding author
- Casal, Jorge J.
- ORCID
- Casal, Jorge J.
- Venue
- Annual Review of Plant Biology
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2013-04-29
- Volume
- 64
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 403-427
- ISSN
- 1543-5008 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-2123
- OpenAlex
- W2107201571
- Cited by
- 865
- References
- 144
- Citations by year
- 2026: 81 · 2025: 66 · 2024: 72 · 2023: 61 · 2022: 79 · 2021: 91 · 2020: 67 · 2019: 60 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 60 · 2016: 58 · 2015: 44 · 2014: 51 · 2013: 13
- FWCI
- 5.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- Locations
- Annual Review of Plant Biology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- CONICET Digital (CONICET) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas
- Universidad de Buenos Aires (CONICET)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Light effects on plants
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Plant Parasitism and Resistance
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Plant Molecular Biology Research
- Keywords
- shade avoidance, photoreceptors, phytochrome, cryptochrome, phototropin, UVR8, phytochrome-interacting factors, DELLA proteins, gibberellin signaling, brassinosteroid signaling, auxin biosynthesis, COP1, circadian clock, red:far-red ratio, plant light signaling, canopy light environment
- MeSH terms
- Gibberellins, Light, Phytochrome, Plant Growth Regulators, Plants, Signal Transduction, Ecosystem, Photoreceptors, Plant
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