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Replicability, Robustness, and Reproducibility in Psychological Science
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Abstract
Replication—an important, uncommon, and misunderstood practice—is gaining appreciation in psychology. Achieving replicability is important for making research progress. If findings are not replicable, then prediction and theory development are stifled. If findings are replicable, then interrogation of their meaning and validity can advance knowledge. Assessing replicability can be productive for generating and testing hypotheses by actively confronting current understandings to identify weaknesses and spur innovation. For psychology, the 2010s might be characterized as a decade of active confrontation. Systematic and multi-site replication projects assessed current understandings and observed surprising failures to replicate many published findings. Replication efforts highlighted sociocultural challenges such as disincentives to conduct replications and a tendency to frame replication as a personal attack rather than a healthy scientific practice, and they raised awareness that replication contributes to self-correction. Nevertheless, innovation in doing and understanding replication and its cousins, reproducibility and robustness, has positioned psychology to improve research practices and accelerate progress.
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“By using a common approach to analyze data from multiple informants, time points, and developmental domains, we can address concerns about the robustness of scientific findings (20,21).”
From A Comprehensive Multilevel Analysis of the Bucharest Early Intervention Project: Causal Effects on Recovery From Early Severe Deprivation (2023) · cites this paper as [21]
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“In psychology, across 307 systematic replications and multisite replications, 64% reported statistically significant evidence in the same direction and effect sizes 68% as large as the original experiments”
From Investigating the replicability of preclinical cancer biology (2021) · cites this paper as Nosek et al., 2021
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“Research into replicability in other disciplines has also found that findings with stronger initial evidence (such as larger effect sizes and/or smaller p-values) is more likely to replicate”
From Investigating the replicability of preclinical cancer biology (2021) · cites this paper as Nosek et al., 2021
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“Independent verification is central to the scientific method (Nosek et al., 2022).”
From Read the Paper, Write the Code: Agentic Reproduction of Social-Science Results (2026) · cites this paper as Nosek et al., 2022
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“A substantial proportion of replications in recent largescale efforts have failed to support the original finding (Nosek et al., 2022).”
From Many Labs 4: Failure to Replicate Mortality Salience Effect With and Without Original Author Involvement (2022) · cites this paper as Nosek et al., 2022
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“This means that even when updates address and mitigate detected biases, they also introduce the potential for “process reproducibility failure” (98) in the generated data and impede reproducibility, critical for scientific rigor (15, 100, 101).”
From Perils and opportunities in using large language models in psychological research (2024) · cites this paper as [98]
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“However, particular challenges arise when applying these principles to LLMs, particularly proprietary ones, whose black-box nature impedes the reproducibility of findings that pertain to them.”
From Perils and opportunities in using large language models in psychological research (2024) · cites this paper as [98]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Nosek, B. A., Hardwicke, T. E., Moshontz, H., Allard, A., Corker, K. S., Dreber, A., Fidler, F., Hilgard, J., Kline Struhl, M., Nuijten, M. B., Rohrer, J. M., Romero, F., Scheel, A. M., Scherer, L. D., Schönbrodt, F. D., & Vazire, S.
- Affiliations
- Center for Open Science (US)
- University of Amsterdam (NL)
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- University of California, Davis (US)
- Grand Valley State University (US)
- Stockholm School of Economics (SE)
- The University of Melbourne (AU)
- Illinois State University (US)
- Center for Open Science, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903, USA
- Tilburg University (NL)
- Leipzig University (DE)
- University of Groningen (NL)
- Eindhoven University of Technology (NL)
- University of Colorado Anschutz (US)
- Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (DE)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Annual Review of Psychology
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2022-01-04
- Volume
- 73
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 719-748
- ISSN
- 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-2085
- OpenAlex
- W3161588210
- Cited by
- 770
- References
- 253
- Citations by year
- 2026: 109 · 2025: 192 · 2024: 180 · 2023: 177 · 2022: 92
- FWCI
- 19.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research portal (Tilburg University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) (submittedVersion)
- University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- John Templeton Foundation
- Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute
- Arnold Ventures
- European Commission (HORIZON2020, 841188)
- University of Melbourne
- Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek
- Templeton World Charity Foundation
- Templeton Religion Trust
- National Institutes of Health
- Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality
- Australian Research Council (FT150100297)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychology Research and Bibliometrics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
- Social Sciences › Psychology › General Psychology › Academic and Historical Perspectives in Psychology
- Keywords
- replication, replicability, reproducibility, robustness, research practices, replication study, research incentives
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Research Design, Reproducibility of Results
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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