Cited by 503Smoking Behavior and CessationSubstance Abuse Treatment and OutcomesGlobal Public Health Policies and Epidemiology

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Smoking, Mental Illness, and Public Health

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Prochaska, Judith J., Das, Smita, Young-Wolff, Kelly C.·2017·Annual Review of Public Health

DOI 10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031816-044618PMC PMC5788573

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Abstract

Tobacco use remains the leading preventable cause of death worldwide. In particular, people with mental illness are disproportionately affected with high smoking prevalence; they account for more than 200,000 of the 520,000 tobacco-attributable deaths in the United States annually and die on average 25 years prematurely. Our review aims to provide an update on smoking in the mentally ill. We review the determinants of tobacco use among smokers with mental illness, presented with regard to the public health HAVE framework of “the host” (e.g., tobacco user characteristics), the “agent” (e.g., nicotine product characteristics), the “vector” (e.g., tobacco industry), and the “environment” (e.g., smoking policies). Furthermore, we identify the significant health harms incurred and opportunities for prevention and intervention within a health care systems and larger health policy perspective. A comprehensive effort is warranted to achieve equity toward the 2025 Healthy People goal of reducing US adult tobacco use to 12%, with attention to all subgroups, including smokers with mental illness.

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Background
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Result
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Background
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Result
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Background
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“cessation are found among people with severe mental disorders(7-12).”
BackgroundResult
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Background
Relationship between Comorbid Drug Use Disorders, Affective Disorders, and Current Smoking
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“…States Department of Health & Human Services, 2014), these decreases have not affected the most vulnerable populations, including those with psychiatric disorders in whom prevalence estimates for cigarette smoking have shown little change over time (Lê Cook et al., 2014; Prochaska et al., 2017).”
Background
Evidence From the Scientific Assessment of Electronic Cigarettes and Their Role in Tobacco Harm Reduction
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Background
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Background
Tobacco-Related Clinical Services and Tobacco-Free Policies in Behavioral Health Treatment Facilities — United States, 2023
VanFrank, B. K., Pasalic, E., Oliver, B. E., Caron, K. T., Nerurkar, K., Marynak, K., Jamal, A., Palipudi, K. M., Mahoney, M. R., Schecter, A., et al. (2025) · MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report · doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm7414a3 · Cited by 9
“Persons with mental health conditions or substance use disorders (i.e., behavioral health conditions) have a disproportionately high prevalence of commercial tobacco product* use and are more likely to experience smoking-related illness than are those without such conditions ( 1 – 3 ).”
Influential
Effects of psychoeducation combined with transcranial direct current stimulation on reducing cigarette craving and consumption in male smokers
Qin, J., Chen, J., Wang, Y., & Zou, Z. (2023) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2023.107643 · Cited by 9
Electronic Cigarettes: an Overlooked Tool to Alleviate Disparities in Tobacco Use Disorder Among People with Mental Health and Substance Use Disorders
Vuong, J. T., Ruedisueli, I., Beaudin, C. S., & Middlekauff, H. R. (2023) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1007/s11606-023-08137-z · Cited by 10
Equitable implementation of lung cancer screening: avoiding its potential to mirror existing inequities among people who use tobacco
Bilenduke, E., Anderson, S. L., Brenner, A. T., Currier, J. J., Eberth, J. M., King, J., Land, S. R., Risendal, B., Shannon, J., Siegel, L. N., et al. (2023) · Cancer Causes & Control · doi:10.1007/s10552-023-01790-z · Cited by 9
“[51] Higher cigarette smoking rates and exposure volume for people experiencing mental illness are the primary contributors [52].”
Background
Literature Review on Nicotine’s Role in Human Health
Scherer, G., Pluym, N., & Scherer, M. (2024) · Contributions to Tobacco & Nicotine Research · doi:10.2478/cttr-2024-0001 · Cited by 8
Implementing a Learning Collaborative for Population-Based Physical and Behavioral Health Integration
Brar, J. S., Maise, A. A., Schake, P. L., Bills, L. J., Washington, L., Nikolajski, C., & Herschell, A. D. (2021) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-020-00769-3 · Cited by 9
Smoking and cessation behaviors in patients at federally funded health centers – United States, 2014
Trapl, E., VanFrank, B. K., Kava, C. M., Trinh, V., Land, S. R., Williams, R. S., Frost, E., & Babb, S. D. (2021) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108615 · Cited by 9
A 5-Factor Framework for Assessing Tobacco Use Disorder
Bucklin, M. (2021) · Tobacco Use Insights · doi:10.1177/1179173x21998355 · Cited by 11
Factors associated with smoking in low-income persons with and without chronic illness
Cano, M. T., Pennington, D., Reyes, S., Pineda, B. S., Llamas, J. A., Periyakoil, V. S., & Muñoz, R. F. (2021) · Tobacco Induced Diseases · doi:10.18332/tid/138241 · Cited by 13
The effect of structured group reminiscence on depression and anxiety of the elderly female hookah users
Bazrafshan, M.-R., Jokar, M., Soufı, O., & Delam, H. (2021) · Journal of Substance Use · doi:10.1080/14659891.2021.1967479 · Cited by 10
“However, smoking has adverse effects on women’s physical and mental health (Prochaska et al., 2017).”
Background
A biomarker‐based study of prenatal smoking exposure and autism in a Finnish national birth cohort
Cheslack‐Postava, K., Sourander, A., Hinkka‐Yli‐Salomäki, S., McKeague, I. W., Surcel, H., & Brown, A. S. (2021) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2608 · Cited by 8
“Given the elevated prevalence of smoking among individuals with psychiatric disorders (Prochaska et al., 2017) and the strong familial co-aggregation between autism and other psychiatric illnesses (Jokiranta et al., 2013), this represents an important potential confounder.”
Background
Reducing tobacco smoke exposure for vulnerable groups: hospital settings and teachable moments
Frazer, K., & Kelleher, C. C. (2018) · Perspectives in Public Health · doi:10.1177/1757913918763444 · Cited by 9
Associations of cigarette smoking with general and abdominal obesity risks among men in Taiwan
Wu, M.-C., Nfor, O. N., Liaw, Y., Su, Y., & Ho, C. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-21821-5 · Cited by 8
Smoking cessation improves health status of patients with chronic diseases: evidence from a longitudinal study of older adults in China
Zhu, H., Xu, P., Wei, Y., Zhao, C., Zhao, D., Li, Y., Ma, X., Wang, M., & Kang, H. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-22203-7 · Cited by 8
“Over the past seven decades, a plethora of studies [1–4] has elucidated the connections between smoking and a range of chronic conditions, including but not limited to cancer [5], hypertension [6, 7], stroke [8], asthma [9], and myocardial infarction [10].”
The Physical Processes and Chemical Transformations of Third-Hand Smoke in Indoor Environments and Its Health Effects: A Review
Wang, Y., & Gu, J. (2025) · Atmosphere · doi:10.3390/atmos16040370 · Cited by 14
Inequity in smoking cessation clinical trials testing pharmacotherapies: exclusion of smokers with mental health disorders
Talukder, S. R., Lappin, J., Boland, V. C., McRobbie, H. J., & Courtney, R. J. (2021) · Tobacco Control · doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2021-056843 · Cited by 8
The absence of association between anorexia nervosa and smoking: converging evidence across two studies
Lloyd, E. C., Reed, Z. E., & Wootton, R. E. (2021) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-021-01918-z · Cited by 8
“1 3 the disproportionate burden of disease amongst psychiatric patients [22], as well as AN aetiology.”
Background
Smoking Cessation Programs Are Less Effective in Smokers with Low Socioeconomic Status Even When Financial Incentives for Quitting Smoking Are Offered—A Community-Randomized Smoking Cessation Trial in Denmark
Pisinger, C. H., Toxværd, C. G., & Rasmussen, M. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191710879 · Cited by 8
Tobacco use characteristics, treatment preferences, and motivation to quit among adults accessing a day shelter in Oklahoma City
Boozary, L. K., Frank-Pearce, S. G., Alexander, A. C., Sifat, M. S., Kurien, J., Waring, J. J. C., Ehlke, S. J., Businelle, M. S., Ahluwalia, J. S., & Kendzor, D. E. (2022) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence Reports · doi:10.1016/j.dadr.2022.100117 · Cited by 9
Reducing the Nicotine Content of Cigarettes: Effects in Smokers With Mental Health Conditions and Socioeconomic Disadvantages
Tidey, J. W., Muscat, J. E., Foulds, J., Evins, A. E., Gaalema, D. E., & Denlinger-Apte, R. L. (2019) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntz118 · Cited by 8
Operationalizing the Population Health Framework: Clinical Characteristics, Social Context, and the Built Environment
Siegel, S. D., Brooks, M. M., & Curriero, F. C. (2020) · Population Health Management · doi:10.1089/pop.2020.0170 · Cited by 7
Prevalence and determinants of tobacco use amongst South African adults with mental illness in the Eastern Cape
Tindimwebwa, L. K., Ajayi, A. I., & Adeniyi, O. V. (2021) · South African Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.4102/sajpsychiatry.v27i0.1637 · Cited by 8
Anxiety Sensitivity and Emotion Dysregulation in Dual and Exclusive E-Cigarette Users
McLeish, A. C., Smit, T., Garey, L., & Zvolensky, M. J. (2021) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.1080/10826084.2021.1954028 · Cited by 8
“Like what has been found for combustible cigarette use (Prochaska et al., 2017), extant work has found significant associations between e-cigarette use and the presence of psychopathology.”
Background
Developing a Smoking Cessation Intervention for People With Severe Mental Illness Treated by Flexible Assertive Community Treatment Teams in the Netherlands: A Delphi Study
Küçükaksu, M. H., Hoekstra, T., Jansen, L., Vermeulen, J. M., Adriaanse, M. C., & van Meijel, B. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.866779 · Cited by 8
“They also have more difficulties with overcoming addiction, manifested in more quit attempts and relapses, thus widening health inequalities between the general and psychiatric population (5, 6).”
Background
A Randomized Clinical Trial to Assess the Efficacy of a Psychological Treatment to Quit Smoking Assisted with an App: Study Protocol
López‐Durán, A., Becoña, E., Senra, C., Suárez-Castro, D., Barroso-Hurtado, M., & Martínez-Vispo, C. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19159770 · Cited by 9
“Smoking is also associated with certain mental disorders, such as anxiety, depression, and schizophrenia [4].”
Background
Improving patient education about tobacco withdrawal and nicotine gum use by registered nurses in inpatient psychiatry: A feasibility study
Muladore, E., Brown, J. A., Haefner, J., & Kupferschmid, B. J. (2018) · Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/jpm.12495 · Cited by 8
Correlates of Tobacco Use and Consumption Among Hospitalized Psychiatric Patients
Okoli, C. T. C., & Seng, S. (2019) · Western Journal of Nursing Research · doi:10.1177/0193945918823483 · Cited by 8
E-cigarette use and associated factors among smokers with severe mental illness.
Peckham, E., Mishu, M., Fairhurst, C., Robson, D., Bradshaw, T., Arundel, C., Bailey, D., Heron, P., Ker, S., & Gilbody, S. (2020) · Addictive Behaviours · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106456 · Cited by 6
Cigarette Smoking, Mental Health, Depression, Maryland Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System Survey, 2020
Balsara, K., Iftikhar, A., Galiatsatos, P., DiClemente, C. C., Mattingly, B., & Kanarek, N. (2024) · Tobacco Use Insights · doi:10.1177/1179173x241285351 · Cited by 7
Tobacco cessation, mental health, and substance use in a community pharmacist-linked cessation program for people experiencing homelessness
Kui, K., Hailozian, C., Thai, M., Chakravarty, D., Apollonio, D. E., Kroon, L. A., & Vijayaraghavan, M. (2024) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2024.112527 · Cited by 9
“There is a strong link between mental health, substance use, and tobacco use (Prochaska et al., 2017; Schroeder and Morris, 2010).”
Prospective Associations Between Tobacco Product Use and Mental Health and Substance Use Problems Among U.S. Adolescents and Adults
Conway, K. P., Michel, E., Eig, S., He, J.-P., & Merikangas, K. R. (2025) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.20230988 · Cited by 8
Cigarette Smoking During Recovery From Substance Use Disorders.
Parks, M. J., Blanco, C., Creamer, M. R., Kingsbury, J. H., Everard, C., Marshall, D., Kimmel, H., & Compton, W. (2025) · JAMA psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2025.1976 · Cited by 8
Accuracy of self-reported adherence and therapeutic drug monitoring in a psychiatric emergency ward
Brasso, C., Cisotto, M., Ghirardini, C., Pennazio, F., Villari, V., & Rocca, P. (2021) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2021.114214 · Cited by 7
Systemic Lactate Elevation Induced by Tobacco Smoking during Rest and Exercise Is Not Associated with Nicotine
Sumartiningsih, S., Rahayu, S., Handoyo, E., Lin, J., Lim, C. L., Starczewski, M., Fuchs, P. X., & Kuo, C. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19052902 · Cited by 7
“Tobacco smoking is associated with increased levels of toxic metals [32] and chemicals [33], and the significance for public health and health care systems is well-known [34].”
Background
Theoretically Guided Iterative Design of the Sense2Quit App for Tobacco Cessation in Persons Living with HIV
Schnall, R., Trujillo, P., Alvarez, G., Michaels, C. L., Brin, M., Huang, M.-C., Chen, H., Xu, W., & Cioe, P. A. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20054219 · Cited by 7
Beyond the label: current evidence and future directions for the interrelationship between electronic cigarettes and mental health
Bautista, M. R., Mogul, A. S., & Fowler, C. D. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1134079 · Cited by 10
“Of note, this phenomenon has also been observed in tobacco cigarette users (49, 50).”
Background
Increasing prevalence of mental disorders in smokers seeking treatment of tobacco dependence: a retrospective observational study
Zvolská, K., Tichopád, A., Štěpánková, L., Pánková, A., Adamcekova, Z., Donin, G., Ráfl, J., & Králíková, E. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-05115-x · Cited by 7
“This trend is in accordance with the process in other countries, where the quicker decline in smoking prevalence was sooner reported in general population comparing to people with psychiatric comorbidity [34].”
Result
Structural Equation Model for Social Support and Quality of Life Among Individuals With Mental Health Disorders During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Tran, B. X., Dam, V. A. T., Auquier, P., Boyer, L., Fond, G. B., Nguyen, H. M., Nguyen, H. T., Le, H. T., Tran, H. N. T., Vu, G. T., et al. (2023) · JMIR Public Health and Surveillance · doi:10.2196/47239 · Cited by 9
“After reviewing the existing literature, we identified demographic, behavioral, illness-related, mental health–related, and social support factors that contribute to influencing the QoL of individuals with mental health conditions [19-21].”
Method
Tobacco Withdrawal Symptoms Before and After Nicotine Deprivation in Veteran Smokers with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and with Major Depressive Disorder
Kaye, J. T., Baker, T. B., Beckham, J. C., & Cook, J. W. (2020) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntaa242 · Cited by 7
“Analyses evaluated withdrawal symptom levels (baseline and during nicotine deprivation) and the change in symptoms related to nicotine deprivation and compared (1) participants with a psychiatric diagnosis versus controls, and (2) participants with PTSD versus MDD.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Medicaid-Insured Client Characteristics and Quit Outcomes at the Arizona Smokers’ Helpline
Brady, B. R., O’Connor, P. A., Martz, M. P., Grogg, T., & Nair, U. S. (2021) · The Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research · doi:10.1007/s11414-021-09756-2 · Cited by 7
Nicotine dependence affects cardiopulmonary endurance and physical activity in college students in Henan, China
Guo, Y. (2023) · Tobacco Induced Diseases · doi:10.18332/tid/166133 · Cited by 7
Predictors of electronic cigarettes use and its association with mental health in Nigeria: A community survey.
Oyapero, A., Erinoso, O. A., Osoba, M., & Kareem, S. (2023) · Population Medicine · doi:10.18332/popmed/175938 · Cited by 8
“Smoking has been conceptualized as an attempt to relieve depression and anxiety symptoms by self-medication 17 .”
Background
Prospective study of provided smoking cessation care in an inpatient psychiatric setting
Burns, A., Lucey, J. V., Strawbridge, J., Clancy, L., & Doyle, F. (2018) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2018.10.006 · Cited by 7
Tobacco Use Is Associated With Mental Illness and Substance Use Problems—Now What?
Prochaska, J. J. (2025) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.20241089 · Cited by 7
Self-citation
Relationships between Serum Biomarkers of Oxidative Stress and Tobacco Smoke Exposure in Patients with Mental Disorders
Vlasceanu, A.-M., Grădinaru, D., Stan, M., Nitescu, V. G., & Baconi, D. L. (2023) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox12061299 · Cited by 6
“About half of the deaths among those hospitalized for schizophrenia, depression, or bipolar disorder are from causes linked to smoking [18].”
Background
Dying to Quit: Understanding the Burden of Tobacco in Psychiatric Patients—A Clinical Review
Sprenger, S., & ANDERSON, J. S. (2024) · Journal of Psychiatric Practice · doi:10.1097/pra.0000000000000764 · Cited by 6
“59 Evidence does suggest that the combination of a patch and a more rapid formulation is more ef ﬁ cacious than a single formulation.”
BackgroundInfluential
Predictors of Adherence Among Vulnerable Populations of Adults Assigned to Smoke Very Low Nicotine Content Cigarettes
Snell, L. M., Reed, G. L., Tidey, J. W., Bunn, J. Y., Harfmann, R. F., Heil, S. H., Sigmon, S. C., Gaalema, D. E., & Higgins, S. T. (2022) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntac145 · Cited by 6
Drug Abuse in the Middle East
Abazid, H. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-92392-1_140 · Cited by 6
Distinct patterns of cigarette smoking intensity and other substance use among women who experience housing instability
Vijayaraghavan, M., Elser, H. C., Delucchi, K., Tsoh, J. Y., Lynch, K. L., Weiser, S. D., & Riley, E. D. (2024) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2024.108066 · Cited by 6
When is neuropsychological testing medically necessary for children on medicaid in New Mexico?
Kaufman, N. K., Mullins, C. B., Davis, A. S., Tonarelli, S. B., Sandoval, H., & Ramos-Duran, L. R. (2017) · Applied Neuropsychology Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2017.1362643 · Cited by 6
Factors Associated With Hospital Presentation of Self-Harm Among Older Canadians in Long-Term Care: A 12-Year Cohort Study
Chai, Y., Luo, H., Yip, P. S. F., Perlman, C. M., & Hirdes, J. P. (2021) · Journal of the American Medical Directors Association · doi:10.1016/j.jamda.2020.12.022 · Cited by 7

Authors: Prochaska, J. J., Das, S., & Young-Wolff, K. C.
Affiliations: Stanford Medicine (US)
Stanford University (US)
Division of Research, Kaiser Permanente Northern California, Oakland, California 94612;
ORCID: Prochaska, Judith J.
Das, Smita
Venue: Annual Review of Public Health
Publisher: Annual Reviews
Published: 2017-03-20
Volume: 38
Issue: 1
Pages: 165-185
ISSN: 0163-7525 (ISSN-L)
1545-2093
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031816-044618
PMC: PMC5788573
OpenAlex: W2520553955
Cited by: 503
References: 135
Citations by year: 2026: 34 · 2025: 51 · 2024: 61 · 2023: 74 · 2022: 70 · 2021: 92 · 2020: 51 · 2019: 36 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 13
FWCI: 2.74
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: hybrid
doi.org
Licence: cc-by-sa
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ (vor)
Locations: Annual Review of Public Health (publishedVersion, cc-by-sa)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion, cc-by-sa)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion, cc-by-sa)
eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
Funders: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (R01HL117736)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Smoking Behavior and Cessation
Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Global Public Health Policies and Epidemiology
Keywords: tobacco use, mental illness, smoking prevalence, premature mortality, determinants of tobacco use, nicotine products, tobacco industry, smoking policy, smoking prevention, smoking cessation interventions, health equity, tobacco use reduction
MeSH terms: Mental Disorders, Health Policy, Humans, Public Health, Smoking, United States, Comorbidity, Smoking Cessation, Persons with Psychiatric Disorders

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