The DOI matches its Crossref record; 44 of the 44 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis: Pathophysiology and Imaging Findings
Abstract
Extrapulmonary tuberculosis (TB) represents approximately 15% of all TB infections. It is difficult to diagnose on the basis of imaging characteristics and clinical symptoms, and biopsy is required in many cases. Radiologists must be aware of the imaging findings of extrapulmonary TB to identify the condition in high-risk patients, even in the absence of active pulmonary infection. In extrapulmonary TB, the lymphatic system is most frequently affected. The presence of necrotic lymph nodes and other organ-specific imaging features increases the diagnostic probability of extrapulmonary TB. Disseminated infection and central nervous system involvement are the most frequent manifestations in immunosuppressed patients. Renal disease can occur in immunocompetent patients with very long latency periods between the primary pulmonary infection and genitourinary involvement. In several cases, gastrointestinal, solid-organ, and peritoneal TB show nonspecific imaging findings. Tuberculous spondylitis is the most frequent musculoskeletal manifestation. It is usually diagnosed late and affects multiple vertebral segments with extensive paraspinal abscess. Articular disease is the second most frequent musculoskeletal manifestation, and synovitis is its predominant imaging finding. ©RSNA, 2019
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“The results of a meta-analysis showed that EPTB represents almost 15% of TB cases, and approximately 10–35% of cases can be found in the head and neck region, most frequently in lymph nodes (87.9%), the other most common location being the larynx [23,26,27].”
From Head and Neck Tuberculosis: A Rare Diagnosis and the Role of Surgical Biopsy and Histopathological Evaluation in Extrapulmonary Disease (2025) · cites this paper as [26]
Citations
Cites
Global tuberculosis report (2014)
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Epidemiology of Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis in the United States, 1993–2006
Peto, H. M., Pratt, R. H., Harrington, T. A., LoBue, P. A., & Armstrong, L. R. (2009) · Clinical Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1086/605559 · Cited by 741
Tuberculosis: A Radiologic Review
Burrill, J., Williams, C. J., Bain, G., Conder, G., Hine, A. L., & Misra, R. R. (2007) · Radiographics · doi:10.1148/rg.275065176 · Cited by 605
Tuberculosis of the central nervous system: overview of neuroradiological findings
Bernaerts, A., Vanhoenacker, F. M. H. M., Parizel, P. M., Goethem, J. W. V., van Altena, R., Laridon, A. M., Roeck, J. D., Coeman, V., & de Schepper, A. M. (2002) · European Radiology · doi:10.1007/s00330-002-1608-7 · Cited by 421
Pulmonary Tuberculosis: Role of Radiology in Diagnosis and Management
Nachiappan, A. C., Rahbar, K., Xiao Hua, S. H. I., Guy, E., Barbosa, E. J. M., Shroff, G. S., Ocazionez, D., Schlesinger, A. E., Katz, S. I., & Hammer, M. M. (2017) · Radiographics · doi:10.1148/rg.2017160032 · Cited by 363
Spinal Tuberculosis: Current Concepts
Rajasekaran, S., Soundararajan, D. C. R., Shetty, A. P., & Kanna, R. M. (2018) · Global Spine Journal · doi:10.1177/2192568218769053 · Cited by 347
Imaging of Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis
Engin, G., Acunaş, B., Acunaş, G., & Tunacı, M. (2000) · Radiographics · doi:10.1148/radiographics.20.2.g00mc07471 · Cited by 306
Discrimination of Tuberculous Spondylitis from Pyogenic Spondylitis on MRI
Jung, N. Y., Jee, W.-H., Ha, K.-Y., Park, C.-K., & Byun, J.-Y. (2004) · American Journal of Roentgenology · doi:10.2214/ajr.182.6.1821405 · Cited by 261
Imaging Spectrum of CNS Vasculitis
Razek, A. A. K. A., Alvarez, H., Bagg, S., Refaat, S., & Castillo, M. (2014) · Radiographics · doi:10.1148/rg.344135028 · Cited by 237
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Cited by
Extrapulmonary tuberculosıs: an old but resurgent problem
BAYKAN, A. H., Sayıner, H. S., Aydın, E., Koç, M., İnan, İ., & Ertürk, Ş. M. (2022) · Insights into Imaging · doi:10.1186/s13244-022-01172-0 · Cited by 176
“38), while decreased bladder capacity and irregular and calcified appearances in bladder contours indicate chronic TB [20, 23, 40].”
BackgroundInfluentialLeowattana, W., Leowattana, P., & Leowattana, T. (2023) · World Journal of Orthopedics · doi:10.5312/wjo.v14.i5.275 · Cited by 78
Gastrointestinal and Abdominal Tuberculosis
Eraksoy, H. (2021) · Gastroenterology Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.gtc.2021.02.004 · Cited by 66
Central nervous system tuberculosis
Dian, S., Ganiem, A. R., & van Laarhoven, A. (2021) · Current Opinion in Neurology · doi:10.1097/wco.0000000000000920 · Cited by 60
“Anterior involvement is mostly due to the spread of exudate or a paraspinal cold abscess under the ligaments and periosteum or to distant vertebral bodies via venous plexus of Batson [19,43].”
BackgroundPediatric Tuberculosis Management: A Global Challenge or Breakthrough?
Maphalle, L. N. F., Michniak‐Kohn, B. B., Ogunrombi, M. O., & Adeleke, O. A. (2022) · Children · doi:10.3390/children9081120 · Cited by 64
“They can remain inactive for long periods but can also rupture and spread to the cerebrospinal fluid [4,65,66].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Rodriguez-Takeuchi, S. Y., Renjifo, M. E., & Medina, F. J.
- Affiliations
- Fundación Valle del Lili (CO)
- From the Department of Radiology, Fundación Valle del Lili–Universidad Icesi, Carrera 98 #18-49, Cali, Colombia.
- Venue
- Radiographics
- Published
- 2019-11
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 2023-2037
- ISSN
- 0271-5333 (ISSN-L)
- 1527-1323
- OpenAlex
- W2988325760
- Cited by
- 328
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 27 · 2025: 49 · 2024: 63 · 2023: 68 · 2022: 70 · 2021: 36 · 2020: 13
- FWCI
- 6.13
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Radiographics (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › Diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › Infectious Diseases and Tuberculosis
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › Tuberculosis Research and Epidemiology
- Keywords
- extrapulmonary tuberculosis, tuberculous lymphadenitis, disseminated tuberculosis, central nervous system tuberculosis, renal tuberculosis, urogenital tuberculosis, gastrointestinal tuberculosis, tuberculous peritonitis, spinal tuberculosis, synovitis, immunosuppression, pathophysiology
- MeSH terms
- Abscess, Diagnosis, Differential, Female, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Muscular Diseases, Risk, Tuberculoma, Tuberculosis, Tuberculosis, Lymph Node, Tuberculosis, Meningeal, Tuberculosis, Osteoarticular, Tuberculosis, Urogenital, Tuberculosis, Central Nervous System
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