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Optimizing Exposure Therapy for Anxiety Disorders: An Inhibitory Learning and Inhibitory Regulation Approach
Open accessAbstract
Exposure-based cognitive-behavioral therapy is the treatment of choice for anxiety disorders. Unfortunately, many individuals fail to benefit from treatment or demonstrate a return of fear. Inhibitory learning and inhibitory regulation models provide a parsimonious and unifying framework from which to situate exposure therapy and provide useful strategies to augment exposure therapy, especially as individuals with anxiety disorders show inhibitory deficits. This paper provides an overview of our application of inhibitory learning from the science of extinction, and inhibitory regulation from the neuroscience of emotion regulation, to exposure therapy for anxiety disorders.
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“In general, exposure therapy is based on the assumption that phobic anxiety and fear are reduced by repeated exposure to feared or avoided stimuli, resulting in habituation and fear extinction by repeated violation of threat expectancy (62, 63).”
From Combined Fainting and Psychogenic Non-epileptic Seizures as Significant Therapy Hurdles in Blood-Injury-Injection Phobia: A Mini-Review and Case Report (2022) · cites this paper as [63]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“Inhibitory learning is currently deemed the more suitable explanation model for anxiety disorders, especially since these patients display impaired inhibitory regulation and learning and thus extinction (63).”
From Combined Fainting and Psychogenic Non-epileptic Seizures as Significant Therapy Hurdles in Blood-Injury-Injection Phobia: A Mini-Review and Case Report (2022) · cites this paper as [63]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Exposure therapy, a potent behavioral treatment approach used in CBT, reduces anxiety by weakening learned associations between feared stimuli and negative outcomes, and strengthening inhibitory learning (i.e., a feared stimulus does not signal threat) (Craske, 2015).”
From Exposure Therapy Acceptability Among Pregnant Latinas With Anxiety: A Qualitative Content Analysis (2025) · cites this paper as Craske, 2015
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Citations
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“Even today his ideas are used as an experimental paradigm to characterise abnormal behaviour, e.g. in the inhibition learning theory (Craske, 2015; Craske et al ., 2008).”
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“Those behavioral experiments during exposure therapy are hypothesized to be most effective when expectancies with regard to the feared outcome are maximally violated by the actual outcome of the behavioral experiment (Craske, 2015; Craske, Liao, Brown, & Vervliet, 2012; Craske et al., 2014).”
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“It has also been suggested that the presence of the psychotherapist during exposure therapy may worsen the generalization of the acquired neutral response to other contexts, due to the mechanisms of inhibitory learning (Craske et al., 2008; Craske, 2015).”
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“Auch die Exposition in der Verhaltenstherapie wird zwischenzeitlich sehr stark als Intervention verstanden, um Patientenerwartungen zu modifizieren (Craske 2015; Craske et al. 2014).”
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“In turn, a highly standardized LG-OST might target fear-evoking expectancies especially well and promotes the acquisition of new non-threat expectancies for BII-associated situations (see Craske, 2015 for a detailed explanation of factors leading to successful between session exposure).”
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“Exposure therapy is the cornerstone of WCBT and involves repetitive exposure to challenging social situations that are mostly work-related, within an inhibitory-based learning model [63].”
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“Behavioral processes have long been understood to mediate CBT (Powers et al., 2017) as reflected in the anxiety literature: exposure leads to inhibitory learning and/or habituation, cognitive reappraisal, and improved self-efficacy (Craske, 2015; Foa & Kozak, 1986; Kindt, 2014).”
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“In addition, 1 3 concurrent use of IE and in vivo exposure may help optimize new learning, as outlined in inhibitory learning approaches to the extinction of fear (Blakey and Abramowitz 2018; Arch and Abramowitz 2015; Craske 2015; Craske et al.”
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“…kann es als Stärke einer empirisch orientierten Therapie betrachtet werden, dass die SD als Methode der Wahl in der Behandlung spezifischer Phobien abgelöst und durch neue Konzepte wie Exposition [Fiegenbaum, 1988] und Erwartungsverletzung [Craske, 2015; Craske et al., 2014] ersetzt wurde.”
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“…significant threats to survival would tend to be specific animals, situations or events that are novel and unexpected, prompting both aversive experiences of fear and protective behavioral action tendencies to promote survival and adaptation (e.g. Craske, 2015; Panayiotou et al., 2021).”
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BackgroundExposure Therapy Acceptability Among Pregnant Latinas With Anxiety: A Qualitative Content Analysis
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“On the other hand, exposure-based behavior treatment (EBBT) has the advantage of simplicity and has become the gold standard for PD+/-AG (Craske, 2015; Emmelkamp et al., 2014; Moscovitch, Antony, & Swinson, 2009; Sánchez-Meca, RosaAlcázar, Marin-Martínez, & Gómez-Conesa, 2010).”
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“…avoid or diminish psychotherapeutic experiences that focus on change (Katz et al., 2017; Leite & Kuiper, 2008), (2) inhibitory (or safety) learning (Blakey & Abramowitz, 2016; Craske, 2015; Tanovic et al., 2018; Wake et al., 2021), and (3) positive treatment expectations (Price & Anderson, 2012).”
BackgroundChing, T. H. W., & Tang, C. S. (2016) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/0889-8391.30.4.235 · Cited by 2
“…of inducing and reducing cognitive dissonance about TAF beliefs from the influence of exposure to threatening information and inhibitory learning (e.g., Craske, 2015; Craske et al., 2008; Craske et al., 2014) in interpreting the maintenance of TAF reduction in the combined intervention group.”
BackgroundResultGutzweiler, R., Schwarz, D., & In‐Albon, T. (2020) · Verhaltenstherapie · doi:10.1159/000508454 · Cited by 2
“…von verschiedenen Interventionstechniken (z.B. interozeptive Exposition, Formulierung von Erwartungen, Benennen der auftretenden Emotionen im Sinne des “affect labeling” in Kombination mit Expositionen in vivo) zur Steigerung der Wirksamkeit der Exposition [Craske et al., 2014; Craske, 2015].”
BackgroundMiegel, F. S., Lindner, P., Schultz, J., Lohse, L., Yassari, A. H., & Jelinek, L. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-07194-9 · Cited by 2
“Activating strong emotions (at least to a certain degree) is necessary for successful ET or ERP according to both the habituation model (Foa & Kozak, 1986) and the inhibitory learning model (Craske, 2015).”
Scheuermann, D., Melzig, C. A., & Benke, C. (2025) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2025.104719 · Cited by 2
Mühlberger, M., Voderholzer, U., & Kindermann, P. (2016) · PSYCH up2date · doi:10.1055/s-0041-107999 · Cited by 2
Therapeutenbegleitete und patientengeleitete Exposition bei Panikstörung mit Agoraphobie
Klan, T., Persike, M., & Hiller, W. (2016) · Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie und Psychotherapie · doi:10.1026/1616-3443/a000348 · Cited by 2
Wieviel Psychologie steckt in der Psychotherapie?
Wïttchen, H., & Rief, W. (2015) · Verhaltenstherapie · doi:10.1159/000430796 · Cited by 2
Büch, H. (2020) · Psychotherapie: Praxis · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-58980-9_16 · Cited by 1
SPECIAL ISSUE: Biofeedback-Integrated Exposure Therapy
Ewigman, N. L. (2023) · Biofeedback · doi:10.5298/1081-5937-51.02.01 · Cited by 1
Smith, B. M., Barney, J. L., Ong, C. W., Barrett, T. S., Levin, M. E., & Twohig, M. P. (2022) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2024.100850 · Cited by 1
Sarawgi, S., & Mathews, R. E. (2025) · Children · doi:10.3390/children12040400 · Cited by 1
“This is further complicated by differences in the utility/harm of some regulatory approaches depending on the implementation and specific psychopathology (e.g., use of cognitive reappraisal prior to engagement in exposures, which may decrease the effectiveness of inhibitory learning [11]).”
From Doubt to Direction: Untangling Pediatric Scrupulosity
Mathews, R. E., & Sarawgi, S. (2025) · Children · doi:10.3390/children12040528 · Cited by 1
“Fortunately, approaching E/RP from the lens of building distress/uncertainty tolerance [57,58] and targeting core motivations [22], regardless of surface-level symptoms, can set the stage for E/RP with scrupulosity symptoms.”
Hossan, M. M., Tasnim, R. A., & Eishita, F. Z. (2025) · Intermountain Engineering, Technology and Computing (IETC) · doi:10.1109/ietc64455.2025.11039392 · Cited by 1
“Meanwhile, Craske [1] explored strategies to optimize exposure therapy with inhibitory learning to disconfirm threat expectations.”
Cognitive behavioural therapy for a specific phobia of vomiting during pregnancy: a case study
Allinson, J., Barnbrook, M., & Challacombe, F. L. (2026) · The Cognitive Behaviour Therapist · doi:10.1017/s1754470x25100421 · Cited by 1
“As repetition and use of different contexts in exposure is crucial to aid generalisation of learning (Craske, 2015), it perhaps would have been helpful to conduct more experiments in locations where Maisie would likely go with her child such as soft plays and playgrounds both within and between…”
A systematic review of pharmacological effects on human aversive memory
Xia, Y., Quednow, B. B., & Bach, D. R. (2026) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2026.106548 · Cited by 1
Inhibitory control training might be a gateway to enhance fear extinction
Dar, K. F., & Asthana, M. K. (2026) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2026.113335 · Cited by 1
Badeja, D., Schier, F., Straka, H.-C., McGinity, M., & Hoyer, J. (2026) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2026.103150 · Cited by 1
Altered prefrontal effective connectivity during emotion regulation in social anxiety disorder
Schrammen, E., Jamieson, A. J., Meinert, H., Böhnlein, J., Slump, T. M., Vogler, R. A., Menze, A., Meinert, S., Bauer, J., Goltermann, J., et al. (2026) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.2026.10628 · Cited by 1
“48 Importantly, although these results shift attention away from fronto-amygdala dysfunction, interpretations remain tentative because of the methodological limitations and specific challenges of DCM.”
A Self-Efficacy Measure for Use During Exposure in CBT Therapy for Childhood Anxiety Disorders
Cancilliere, M. K., Fryc, A., & Flannery-Schroeder, E. C. (2022) · Evidence-Based Practice in Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.1080/23794925.2022.2148380 · Cited by 1
Κube, T., & Jakobs, S. (2023) · Verhaltenstherapie · doi:10.1159/000531150 · Cited by 1
“Dieser Fokus leitet sich aus Model-len zum inhibitorischen Lernen ab [Craske et al., 2014; Craske, 2015] und findet bereits eine erfolgreiche Anwendung in der Behandlung von Angststörungen [Pittig et al., 2021, 2023].”
BackgroundGrunewald, W., Stanley, T. B., & Smith, A. R. (2024) · CBT: science into practice · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-65339-1_10 · Cited by 1
In‐Albon, T., & Margraf, J. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-61814-1_47 · Cited by 1
Papalini, S., Beckers, T., Oudenhove, L. V., & Vervliet, B. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.09.06.556396 · Cited by 1
Papalini, S., Beckers, T., Oudenhove, L. V., & Vervliet, B. (2024) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.92831.1 · Cited by 1
Evidencia de procesos asociativos en la extinción de la memoria espacial en humanos
Nacional, I. P., Luna, D., Manzanares-Silva, M., Nacional, I. P., Rodríguez-González, K., Nacional, I. P., López-Cruz, H., & Nacional, I. P. (2017) · Revista Mexicana de Investigación en Psicología · doi:10.32870/rmip.v9i1.580
“…Astur, West, Griego, & Rowland, 2016), los cuales pueden ampliarse con la investigación sobre su extinción (e.g., Schoenfeld, Foreman, & Leplow, 2014; Schulz, Topic, De Souza Silva, & Huston, 2004) y fortalecerse por la aplicación de principios asociativos (e.g., Culver, Vervliet, & Craske, 2015).”
BackgroundAncestral roots: The origins of CPT
Galovski, T. E., Nixon, R. D. V., & Kaysen, D. L. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-816715-1.00002-9
Symptombezogene Subgruppen von Patienten mit agoraphobischer Angst
Hoferichter, E., Schmidt, R. A. M., Höfler, M., Hoyer, J., Rottstädt, F., Weidner, K., & Noack, R. (2019) · Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie und Psychotherapie · doi:10.1026/1616-3443/a000542
Angststörungen in der Kindheit
In‐Albon, T., & Pfeiffer, S. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-45995-9_33-1
Ein verfahrensübergreifendes Modell für psychische Störungen als Grundlage der Therapieplanung
Rief, W., & Strauss, B. M. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-3-437-21352-6.00004-3
Breaking the Cycle of Learned Fear: An Experimental Approach
van Dis, E. A. M. (2021) · Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) · doi:10.33540/934
Landkroon, E. (2021) · Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) · doi:10.33540/651
Metadata
- Authors
- Craske, M.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Corresponding author
- Craske, Michelle
- ORCID
- Craske, Michelle
- Venue
- Verhaltenstherapie
- Publisher
- S. Karger AG
- Published
- 2015
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 134-143
- ISSN
- 1016-6262 (ISSN-L)
- 1423-0402
- OpenAlex
- W4294949187
- Cited by
- 124
- References
- 90
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 2
- FWCI
- 12.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Verhaltenstherapie (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
- Keywords
- exposure therapy, anxiety disorders, inhibitory learning, extinction, emotion regulation, cognitive behavioral therapy, augmentation therapy, inhibitory deficits, return of fear
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