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Alliance and competition: four case studies of Maroon-European relations

Parris, Scott V.·1981·New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids
DOI 10.1163/22134360-90002124
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  1. I readily acknowledge, however, that it is more difficult to determine where condi- tions for slaves were most harsh among the recognized cases of "exploitative" regimes -whether these were to be found in Isthmian mines or bullion transport, or in the cane fields of Saint-Domingue and Pernambuco. In addition to actual physical labor, evalua- tion of the harshness of a slave regime must take into consideration slaves' day-to-day living conditions, their margins for independent action, and the accessibility of winning liberty, before firm conclusions can be drawn regarding the comparative intensity of systems of slave control. For a discussion of these themes see GENOVESE 1969, pp. 202- 210.
  2. I do not mean to suggest here, however, that any linear connection existed between the harshness of the "exploitative," labor-and capital-intensive regimes and the existence of maroon societies -or to the rate of the slaves running away. The factors contributing to the occurrence of marrond^e are many, and include indulgence on the part of slave- holders as well as punishments and the obligation to perform wearying tasks. The run- away communities discussed in the essay represent only one form of marrona^e, other maroons, especially skilled ones, chose to pass as free in urban areas where the availability of their skills often mattered more than the technicalities of their legal status. These indiv- iduals, moreover, ran away singly or in small groups, and rarely attempted to create new societies in inaccessible areas. The point here is that maroon communities did not flourish in ' 'settlement'' colonies where the overall slave regime seems to have been more lax. Where they existed, the fugitive communities grew in size and number until the percep- tion of them as a threat to property and life prompted Europeans to reduce them. For a discussion of the relevant factors involved in the slaves' decision to run away, see PRICE 1973, pp. 3-4, 23-24, and 1976, pp. 6-29; WOOD 1975, Chapter 9; and MULLIN 1972, pp. 105-123. 9 CARNEKO 1958, pp. 75-76. 10 KENT 1965, p. 171.
  3. DE FREITAS 1954, I, p. 290; FREITAS 1973, pp. 85, 87, 132 e//B«m. 12 SCHAPER 1973, Chapter I, /><ro/m. 13 GUILLOT 1961, pp. 168-170. 14 FRANCO 1968, p. 96; WRIGHT 1932, pp. 16, 45, 49-50, 69, 110-111, e</xra«m. 15 GuniOT 1961, pp. 138-139. and Chapters 912, />ajj»m.
  4. Viceroy of Peru to H.M., August 30, 1560, quoted in GUILLOT 1961, pp. 163-164.
  5. See the statutes and programs for reduction of the maroons cited by GUILLOT 1961, pp. 136, 138, 165-166, 185-186, and Chapters 9 12,
  6. J. LOPEZ DE VELASCO, Geo^ra/ij _y *feft:n/>c/o» an/fena/ <fc i« ƒ»<&», 1574, cited in GUILLOT 1961; WRIGHT 1932, pp. 72, 150-151, 162; NICHOLS 1653, pp. 51 52. 19 MORGAN 1975, p. 13. 20
  7. Cf. NICHOLS 1653, WRIGHT 1932, Introduction, xxxviii-xlv; GUILLOT 1961, pp. 171- 175. 21 WRIGHT 1932, pp. 171172.
  8. ALONSO CRIADO DE CASTILLA quoted in GUILLOT 1961, p. 170. 23 WRIGHT 1932, note 1, pp. 121 122, 132 133. 24 WRIGHT 1932, p. 133, 150-151, 160, 177, 191, 201, 207, 211, 217, «//MJOT. 25 WRIGHT 1932, pp. 235-239; GUILLOT 1961, pp. 191-192. 26 GUILLOT 1961, pp. 191, 299; WRIGHT 1932, p. 214. 27 WRIGHT 1932, pp. 240 241.
  9. The role of Indians as third parties in relations between Europeans and maroons often seems to have been a crucial one, yet as a topic remains largely unanalyzed. It lies beyond the scope of this essay. Indians are mentioned sporadically in regard to the Isthmian maroons, for example, but references are so sparee that one cannot readily tell if particular fugitive communities treated neigboring indigenous peoples as allies, enemies, or both at different times. For a brief introduction to the question, see PRICE 1973, pp. 9, 15-16, and 19. Again Indians seem to have figured importantly in certain campaigns against Palmares, but the precise nature of their independent contribution to multi-racial relations on the Pernambucan frontier has yet to be analyzed. See also below.
  10. The perspective presented here owes much to DENING 1975, and to MiNTZ & PRICE 1976. See also PRICE 1973, pp. 14-15; FRANCO 1968, pp. 91-135,/xw.ww.-and MASE- FIELD 1925, pp. 85 102,/w^im. 32 PATTERSON 1970, p. 289. 33 MORALES PADRÓN 1952, pp. 270-271, 273-274.
  11. The wish to obtain European clothing independently is shown in other instances. The Jamaican marooas attempted to kill the English with as little bloodhed as possible, so that the plundered garments would not be stained or infected with the diseases suffered principally by the Europeans. WRIGHT 1930, p. 143; TAYLOR 1968, pp. 98, 102, 149; SCHAFER 1973, p. 16. 35 TAYLOR 1968, pp. 102103. 36 TAYLOR 1968, pp. 99, 102, 105-106, 163, 179 e/pawm». 37 PATTERSON 1970, pp. 284-285.
  12. WRIGHT 1930, p. 119, believed that the Spanish leader YSASSI was himself of mixed racial parentage. 38 TAYLOR 1968, pp. 185 186. 39 7*<tf. 40 WRIGHT 1930, pp. 143-145. 41 TAYLOR 1968, pp. 190192. 42 PATTERSON 1970, p. 297. 43 SCHAFER 1973, p. 22. 44 SCHAFER 1973, pp. 23-25. 45 TAYLOR 1968, pp. 190-192. 46 WRIGHT 1930, p. 144.
  13. KENT 1965, p. 161. Given that networks of ^«//OTO^OJ comprised the multi-settlement of Palmares, the Portuguese term "os Palmares" or the "Palm Groves," more ac- curately depicts the nature of the spatial arrangement of the black communities. The term "Palmares" is employed here, however, in accordance with typical English usage. 48 BOXER 1957, p. 36. 49 KENT 1965, p. 161. 50 KENT 1965, p. 164; CARNEIRO 1958, p. 50. 51 CARNEIRO 1958, pp. 60-61, 255 258.
  14. SEBASTIAO DA ROCHA PITAA, cited in KENT 1965, p. 170. 54 CARNEIRO 1958, p. 76. 55 Indirect support for the argumer.3 advanced here can be drawn from comparable data on Hispaniola, where Spanish merchants and ranchers traded with the maroons who had fled largely from the French plantation in Saint-Domingue. See below. 56 FREITAS 1973, pp. 72-73. 57 FREITAS 1973, pp. 73-74, 85-90; KENT 1965, p. 171; CARNEIRO 1958, pp. 98-101. 58 CARNEIRO 1958, pp. 110-119. 59 FRHTAS 1973, pp. 111-120.
  15. The Overseas Council of Portugal, quoted in FREITAS 1973, p. 139, and pp. 139-142; CARNEIRO 1958, pp. 143-145. 61 FRETTAS 1973, p. 139. 62 KENT 1965, p. 174.
  16. DOMINGOS JORGE VELHO quoted in CARNEIRO 1958, p. 75. 64 DOMINGOS JORGE VELHO, quoted in CARNEIRO 1958, pp. 74-76; FREITAS 1973, p. 148. 65 KENT 1965, pp. 170171. 66 CARNEIRO 1958, p. 122. 67 CARNEIRO 1958, p. 123. 68 CARNEmo 1958, p. 145. 69 CARNEIRO 1958, pp. 124125. 70 CARNEIRO 1958. 71 KENT 1965, pp. 173-174; FREITAS 1973, pp. 71, 87-88.
  17. It was commented as the time that "in the same space where a Spaniard installed him- self in two days, 100 Frenchmen with 5000 Negroes could only do so in several years." Few statements resume better the contrasting French and Spanish approaches to "settlement." DEBBASCH 1961, 1, pp. 72-73;
  18. MOREAU DE SAINT-MERY 1796, J4 «few. /, pp. 60-65. 76 GmoD 1972, pp. 25-27, 37-38;
  19. SANCHEZ VALVERDE 1947, p. 131 and note 170, pp. 142-144, 146, 169; KONETZKE 1962, Vol. 3, Part 2, p. 58. 78 KONETZKE 962, Vol. 3, Part. 2, p. 553;
  20. MOREAU DE SAINT-MERY 1796, A to/io^r. dlwcr. /, pp. 57-58.
  21. MOREAU DE SAINT-MÉRY 1796, Dfcrcr. /o/>o^r. ƒ/, p. 172. See also DEBIEN 1966, p. 30. 80'DEBBASCH 1961,1, pp. 51
  22. 81 The name "Las Minas" derives from the West African site from which the former slaves had departed for the Americas. MOREAU DE SAINT-MÉRY 1796, Dejcr. /o/>o^r. /ƒ, pp. 174-175.
  23. MOREAU DE SAINT-MÉRY 1796, Dercr /o/)o^r. /ƒ, pp. 175-177; DEBBASCH 1962, 11, p. 148. 83 DEBBASCH 1961, I, p. 73. 84 DEBBASCH 1961, I, pp. 80-81. 85 GUILLOT 1961, pp. 79 80. 86
  24. MOREAU DE SAINT-MÉRY 1958, III, pp. 1131, 1135. See also MINTZ& PRICE 1976; 87 DEBBASCH 1961,1, pp. 76, 108.
  25. MOREAU DE SAINT-MERY 1958, ID, pp. 1135-1136. 89 DEBBASCH 1961,1, pp. 187-190.
  26. A powerful description and analysis of the role model of maroons for other blacks in Saint-Domingue is given in FOUCHARD 1972, Chapter 7,/xw.wm, especially pp. 450- 462.
  27. BLASSINGAME, JOHN W., 1972. 77je j/We coTOWJa»//y : />/a»to//'o» ///e /» //fee a»/e-£e//am 5oa//>. New York: Oxford University Press.
  28. BOXER, CHARLES R., 1957. T&e Date* ;» Brai/7, J624/654. Oxford: Qarendon Press.
  29. CRANE, VERNER, 1956. Tfte .soaker» /ronfier, 267O/732. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
  30. DEBBASCH, YVAN, 1961-1962. Le marronnage : essaisurla desertion del'esclaveantillais. I'i4n»ee Sor/o/o^ae, 3e Jéne: 1-112 (1:1961); 117-195 (11:1962). fü; GABRffiL; 1366. Lf fflirTGfljp JUJ Anfilte frmf ïiis SÜ XVIII? lilclê. ü^ 6 (3) : 3-44.
  31. GENOVESE, EUGENE V., 1969. The treatment of slaves in different countries: problems in the application of the comparative method. In Laura Foner and Eugene V. Genovese, (eds.), 5&t'?ry w» /^e Neu' IVori/. a reader m <rom/)ara/«'e te/ory. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, pp. 202 210.
  32. KONETZKE, RICHARD, (ed.), 1962. Co/ecctó» */« */o<:aTOe«/oj /wra ii /om&zc/o» Hu/>a»oamérKra, i49J-28JO. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, 3
  33. MASEFIELD, JOHN, 1925. O« //be 5/XJBM/J JMJ/« (4th ed.). London: Methuen.
  34. «^«e, f/f/Ve, />o/;/;^«e, e/ /(«/ori^ae <^e i; />ar/»e /ranfaise </e /'ir& 5a/»/ Dom/njfae. Revised edition. Paris: Société de 1'Histoire des Colonies Franchises et Librairie Larouse. 3 vols. -1796. Dej^n/i/;ow /o/>o^ra^/j<^ae ?' />o////^ue </f /a Philadelphia: printed by the author.
  35. MULLIN, GERALD W., 1972. F/;jp/>/ a»</ re£e///o»: i/ijfe rwis/ance M Wryratfl. New York: Oxford University Press.

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Authors
Parris, S. V.
Venue
New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids
Publisher
Walter de Gruyter GmbH
Published
1981-01-01
Volume
55
Issue
1
Pages
174-224
ISSN
  • 1382-2373
  • 2213-4360
DOI
10.1163/22134360-90002124
Cited by
5
References
0
Licence
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0 (unspecified)

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