Heterogeny in cages: Age-structure and attractant availability impacts fertile egg production in the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens
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Abstract
Adult behaviour is a growing area of interest for those researching the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), which is affected by underlying demography and spatiotemporal patterns. This greenhouse experiment examined the interaction of age-related effects that can accrue within heterogeneous breeding populations and the potential benefits of delaying an oviposition attractant in concert with restricting mean cohort age. The impetus for this investigation was because if flies are introduced into a mating-cage before old flies are removed or culled, a population of mixed-age and mating-status is created. We hypothesized this population dynamic potentially reduces quality among available mate choices, especially in small cages where flies might not be able to spatially segregate. Metrics for fitness included copulation frequency, oviposition frequency, weight of eggs produced, and hatch percentage. “Same”-aged cohorts (maximum 4 days old at introduction) performed better than highly heterogeneous (1–16 days old) “mixed” cohorts by mating 2.32-times more frequently and laying 6.58-times more eggs that were 1.17-times more fertile, despite 1.41 fewer observed oviposition events. Delaying the attractant had a significant effect on egg collection weight and led to 1.25-times higher egg yields for same-age populations compared to mixed-aged cohorts where the delaying the attractant had no significant effect. These results are likely due in part to an immediate desire to lay eggs by older females as well as haphazard egg laying in cage material, which was 2.09-times higher for mixed cohorts. The results highlight the importance of constraining the age of breeding populations and removing old adults from cages to improve yields and better manipulate behaviour. For those for whom this is logistically unfeasible, providing an attractant box initially and continuously may be the preferred method to trap more eggs from heterogeneous populations.
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The asynchronous emergence of both sexes and of entire cohorts creates complex reproductive dynamics in BSF.
“The asynchronous emergence of both sexes and of entire cohorts creates complex reproductive dynamics (Lemke, Li, Dickerson, et al. 2025).”
From Beyond the Black Box: Reproductive Strategies of the Black Soldier Fly as a Model for Bridging Evolutionary Biology and Applied Entomology (2026) · cites this paper as Lemke, Li, Dickerson, et al. 2025
The Abstract reports that mixed-age breeding cohorts differ from same-age cohorts in mating frequency, egg production and fertility, supporting the point that age structure affects BSF reproduction. It does not say that asynchronous emergence of both sexes or entire cohorts creates that age structure. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredHousing mixed ages of BSF adults can reduce the efficiency of reproduction at the industrial scale.
“This means that housing mixed ages of BSF adults can reduce the efficiency of reproduction at the industrial scale (Lemke, Li, Dickerson, et al. 2025).”
From Beyond the Black Box: Reproductive Strategies of the Black Soldier Fly as a Model for Bridging Evolutionary Biology and Applied Entomology (2026) · cites this paper as Lemke, Li, Dickerson, et al. 2025
The Abstract reports that mixed-age cohorts produced fewer eggs and less fertile eggs than same-age cohorts, supporting the concern about reproductive efficiency. But the experiment was conducted in greenhouse breeding cages; our copy does not establish the effect at industrial scale. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredContinuous production makes it difficult to identify and control for variation and perpetuates variation because eggs are fertilized by a heterogeneous group of flies.
“it has the significant drawbacks of making it difficult to precisely identify and control for variation that accrues throughout various steps in the industrial production cycle, as well as perpetuating this variation because any collected eggs will be fertilized and laid by a heterogenous group of flies (Lemke, Li, Dickerson, et al. 2025).”
From Beyond the Black Box: Reproductive Strategies of the Black Soldier Fly as a Model for Bridging Evolutionary Biology and Applied Entomology (2026) · cites this paper as Lemke, Li, Dickerson, et al. 2025
The Abstract (page unavailable) says introducing flies before older flies are removed creates a mixed-age breeding population, and it reports differences in egg yield and fertility between mixed- and same-age cohorts. It does not say that continuous industrial production makes variation across production steps difficult to identify or control, or that eggs perpetuate that variation. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredOverrepresentation of old or non-competitive males appears to depress productivity in BSF.
“overrepresentation of old or non- competitive males appears to depress productivity (Dickerson et al. 2024; Lemke, Li, Dickerson, et al. 2025)”
From Beyond the Black Box: Reproductive Strategies of the Black Soldier Fly as a Model for Bridging Evolutionary Biology and Applied Entomology (2026) · cites this paper as Lemke, Li, Dickerson, et al. 2025
The Abstract reports that same-aged BSF cohorts mated more frequently and produced more eggs than mixed-age cohorts, and recommends removing old adults to improve yields. It does not establish that an overrepresentation of old or non-competitive males, specifically, depresses productivity; it also suggests older females and misplaced egg laying as possible contributors. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSpatial separation of mating and oviposition zones, provisioning of microclimates, and control of light gradients can enhance reproductive success in captive BSF.
“suggest that spatial separation of the mating and oviposition zones within cages, proper provisioning of microclimates and a precise control of light gradients can enhance reproductive success (Lemke, Li, Dickerson, et al. 2025).”
From Beyond the Black Box: Reproductive Strategies of the Black Soldier Fly as a Model for Bridging Evolutionary Biology and Applied Entomology (2026) · cites this paper as Lemke, Li, Dickerson, et al. 2025
The Abstract reports that oviposition-attractant timing affected egg yield and hypothesizes that limited spatial segregation in small cages may reduce mate quality. It does not say that separating mating and oviposition zones, provisioning microclimates, or controlling light gradients enhances reproductive success; its spatial-segregation hypothesis concerns mixed-age flies, not distinct activity zones. (LLM, conf=0.77)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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References 120 · Cited by 3
- Authors
- Lemke, N. B., Li, C., Dickerson, A. J., Salazar, D. A., Rollinson, L. N., Mendoza, J. E., Miranda, C. D., Crawford, S., & Tomberlin, J. K.
- Affiliations
- Texas A&M University (US)
- Sun Yat-sen University (CN)
- Department of Entomology, https://dx.doi.org/14736Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
- Howard Payne University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lemke, N.B.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Journal of Insects as Food and Feed
- Publisher
- Walter de Gruyter GmbH
- Published
- 2025-08-05
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 317-336
- ISSN
- 2352-4588 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4413002236
- Cited by
- 3
- References
- 120
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 2
- FWCI
- 2.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Journal of Insects as Food and Feed (publishedVersion)
- bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Insect Science › Insect Utilization and Effects
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Insect Science › Insect behavior and control techniques
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurobiology and Insect Physiology Research
- Keywords
- Hermetia illucens, age structure, population heterogeneity, oviposition attractants, mating behavior, copulation frequency, egg yield
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