Beyond the Black Box: Reproductive Strategies of the Black Soldier Fly as a Model for Bridging Evolutionary Biology and Applied Entomology

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Several recent studies suggest female BSF can oviposit multiple times, though others argue BSF oviposit only once.

“Several recent studies suggest female BSF can oviposit multiple times (Jones and Tomberlin  2021; Hoffmann et al. 2021; Chiabotto et al. 2024; Laudani et al. 2024), though others argue BSF oviposit only once (Sibonje 2024).”

• cites Jones and Tomberlin 2021 sourceCould not verify

  The Oviposition and hatch rate section reports egg counts by day for populations, not repeated oviposition by individual females. The Effects of body size on oviposition and hatch rate section discusses multiple mating, which is distinct from laying eggs multiple times. Searches for repeated oviposition and oviposition frequency found no passage addressing the attributed claim; page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Hoffmann et al. 2021 sourceDisputed

  The Introduction (page unavailable) says BSF females produce only one viable egg clutch in their lifetime. The Discussion (page unavailable) finds evidence of multiple mating and paternity, not multiple oviposition; the claim appears to conflate mating with egg-laying. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Chiabotto et al. 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Increased perching area provided by plants increases mating rates in BSF, with magnitude varying with plant density.

“the increased perching area provided by the plants has been shown to increase mating rates, although the magnitude of the effects varies with the density of the plants provided (Lemke et  al.  2024; Grosso et  al.  2025).”

• cites Lemke et al. 2024 sourceDisputed

  The Methods (§2.6) identify mating events as a fitness metric tested against plant treatment and leaf area. The Results (§3.1) report no statistical effect of treatment on any tested fitness metric, contrary to the claimed increase in mating rates with plant density. Page numbers are not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.89)

  Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Grosso et al. 2025 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Female fecundity in BSF is tightly correlated with adult body size (Spearman's ρ = 0.73), which depends on larval diet.

“female fecundity in BSF is instead tightly correlated with adult body size (Spearman's ρ = 0.73) which depends on larval diet (Gobbi et al. 2013; Shrestha et al. 2025).”

• cites Gobbi et al. 2013 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion (page not supplied) says larger BSF females were more fertile, and the Adult size section reports that adult size differed by larval diet. But the paper does not report a Spearman correlation of ρ = 0.73 between fecundity and body size: its Statistical analysis section specifies Pearson correlations for body size and ovarian measurements, and Table 3’s 0.73 values concern those measurements. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Shrestha et al. 2025 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

BSF are not strict capital breeders and supplemental nutrition can benefit adult fitness, though this is not always consistently observed.

“However, BSF are not strict capital breeders and supplemental nutrition can benefit adult fitness (Thinn and Kainoh 2022; Klüber et al. 2023; Barrett et al. 2025), though this is not always consistently observed (Lemke et al. 2023; Coudron et al. 2025).”

• cites Thinn and Kainoh 2022 sourceSupported
• cites Klüber et al. 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Barrett et al. 2025 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Neurobehavioural assays confirm that BSF can taste and respond to sugar, with females responding more strongly than males.

“Neurobehavioural assays confirm that BSF can indeed taste and respond to sugar, with females responding more strongly than males (Merle et al. 2026).”

• cites Merle et al. 2026 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

BSF larvae are widely studied for converting organic waste into protein and fertiliser, making BSF a keystone species in sustainable agriculture and circular food systems.

“As an efficient decomposer of organic waste with a high degree of nutritional flexibility, BSF larvae are widely studied for converting organic waste into protein and fertiliser, making it a keystone species in sustainable agriculture and circular food systems (Tomberlin and van Huis 2020; Tomberlin et al. 2022).”

• cites Tomberlin and van Huis 2020 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction (pp. 1–2) describes BSF as a widely studied model for recycling organic waste into animal feed while producing frass usable as fertiliser. The Conclusions (p. 3) call it a key asset for a circular economy. The paper does not establish the claimed high nutritional flexibility or describe BSF as a keystone species in sustainable agriculture and circular food systems. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Tomberlin et al. 2022 sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract names black soldier fly among the three insects prominent in mass production and describes insect-agriculture outputs including protein and frass. It also links the broader sector to sustainability and circular economies. It does not specifically say that BSF larvae convert organic waste into protein and fertiliser, have high nutritional flexibility, or are a keystone species. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Male BSF flight activity peaks in the late morning and early afternoon, followed by a peak in female activity later in the day.

“The timing of these interactions is structured, with male flight activity peaking in the late morning and early afternoon, followed by a peak in female activity later in the day (Lemke et al. 2024).”

• cites Lemke et al. 2024 sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract links early-hour perching patterns to males engaging in aerial contests, and Discussion §4.3 says mating intensity generally peaks by 12:00 under artificial light or 15:00 under natural light. But the paper measured perching and mating events, not sex-specific flight-activity peaks. It only suggests that females might leave perches to join mating swarms later in the day; it does not establish a later female flight peak. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Visual neural pathways are more developed in male BSF than in females.

“Evidence suggests that visual neural pathways are more developed in males than females (Barrett, Godfrey, et al. 2022)”

• cites Barrett, Godfrey, et al. 2022 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

BSF larvae are negatively phototropic and often seek dark crevices prior to pupation; the subsequent positive phototaxis of adults would guide them out of emergence sites and into open, illuminated areas where mating can occur.

“BSF larvae are negatively phototropic and often seek dark crevices prior to pupation; the subsequent positive phototaxis of adults would guide them out of emergence sites and into open, illuminated areas where mating can occur (Giannetti et al. 2022).”

• cites Giannetti et al. 2022 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction (page unavailable) says prepupae avoid light and seek shelter to pupate, supporting the larval portion of the claim. The cited paper does not establish that adults are positively phototactic or that light guides them from emergence sites to mating areas. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

BSF's wing interference patterns putatively are detected visually thanks to high photoreceptive sensitivity of the ommatidia in BSF compound eyes.

“These honest signals putatively are detected visually thanks to high photoreceptive sensitivity of the ommatidia in BSF compound eyes (Oonincx et al. 2016).”

• cites Oonincx et al. 2016 sourceCould not verify

  Our copy contains only the paper’s title and bibliographic details (no section or page). The title identifies a study of BSF compound-eye photoreceptor spectral sensitivity, but the available text does not address whether ommatidia are highly sensitive or whether BSF visually detect wing interference patterns. Searches for those points returned no further passages. (LLM, conf=0.75)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

BSF might alter the harmonics of their buzzing by rapidly modulating the frequency of their wingbeats, as is the case in Aedes aegypti.

“BSF might alter the harmonics of their buzzing by rapidly modulating the frequency of their wingbeats, as is the case in Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) (Aldersley and Cator 2019).”

• cites Aldersley and Cator 2019 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Males perform aerial displays of wing-fanning, which combined with wing-interference patterns (WIPs) putatively serve as visual signals for conspecifics.

“Males perform aerial displays of wing-­ fanning, which combined with wing-­ interference patterns (WIPs) putatively serve as visual signals for conspecifics (Rebora et al. 2024).”

• cites Rebora et al. 2024 sourcePartly supported

  The Methods (Behavioural experiments; page unavailable) record males fanning their wings on coloured cardboard disks, not performing aerial wing-fanning displays. The Discussion (page unavailable) suggests that wing structural colours, including WIPs, may serve as mating signals, but it does not establish that male wing-fanning and WIPs act together as visual signals to conspecifics. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

The duration of the genital lock appears mostly unaffected by adult size but varies with age.

“Moreover the duration of the genital lock appears mostly unaffected by adult size but varies with age (Manas, Labrousse, and Bressac 2025; Manas, Venon, et al. 2025), suggesting that BSF might not engage in mate guarding, which in other species can arise as a mating tactic to prevent females from mating with rivals.”

• cites Manas, Labrousse, and Bressac 2025 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Manas, Venon, et al. 2025 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Initial matings might last between 32.5 ± 13.4 (mean ± SD) minutes, and mating duration generally increases with each successive mating up to 50.2 ± 26.6 min for the fifth mating.

“Initial matings might last between 32.5 ± 13.4 (mean ± SD) minutes, though research suggests mating duration generally increases with each successive mating up to 50.2 ± 26.6 min for the fifth mating (Manas, Venon, et al. 2025).”

• cites Manas, Venon, et al. 2025 sourcePartly supported

  The Copulation duration section reports 32.5 ± 13.4 minutes for the first male mating and an increase through successive matings. But it assigns 50.2 ± 26.6 minutes to the fourth mating, not the fifth; Table 1 notes that no male mated five times. (LLM, conf=0.94)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Some studies report a clear behavioural segregation of the sexes, but other aspects of lekking are often not reported because most detailed behavioural studies in BSF are typically done at small scale, because manual observations become impossible even at modest densities.

“Although some studies report a clear behavioural segregation of the sexes (Lemke et  al.  2024), other aspects of lekking are often not reported because most detailed behavioural studies in BSF are typically done at small scale, because manual observations of BSF behaviour become impossible even at modest densities.”

• cites Lemke et al. 2024 sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The mating system of BSF is described as 'lekking' or 'lek-like', in which males aggregate at spatially distinct sites which females visit strictly to mate.

“The mating system of BSF is described as 'lekking' (Tomberlin and Sheppard 2001) or 'lek-­ like' (Birrell 2018), in which males aggregate at spatially distinct sites which females visit strictly to mate (Alcock  1990).”

• cites Tomberlin and Sheppard 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Birrell 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Alcock 1990 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction and “Resource-defense or lek polygyny?” sections describe males of Hermetia comstocki defending landmark plants that females visit to mate, probably without obtaining other resources. But the cited study concerns H. comstocki, not the black soldier fly (BSF), and its conclusion about females obtaining no resources is qualified rather than strict. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Some field and lab observations document stable male aggregations, whilst other reports mention no aggregation except within ephemeral mating balls involving multiple males.

“Some field and lab observations document stable male aggregations (Tomberlin and Sheppard 2001; Lemke et al. 2024), whilst other reports mention no aggregation except within ephemeral mating balls involving multiple males (Permana et  al.  2020), although these might be incorrectly mistaken for leks.”

• cites Tomberlin and Sheppard 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lemke et al. 2024 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion (§4.4, page unavailable) reports male aerial swarms in captivity and prolonged bouts of mating behavior near lights, supporting the observation of male aggregations. It does not establish that those aggregations were stable, rather than recurring or changing over time. The separate claim about ephemeral mating balls is attributed to Permana et al., not Lemke et al. (LLM, conf=0.81)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Permana et al. 2020 sourceCould not verify

  The Abstract describes mating success and mate virginity in semi-outdoor cages, but does not discuss male aggregations. Searches for mating balls, multiple-male groups, and aggregations returned no relevant passage from our copy, so the claim attributed to Permana et al. cannot be verified. (LLM, conf=0.72)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Lekking behaviour has been described in one other congener, the Agave soldier fly, Hermetia comstockii.

“This behaviour has been described in one other congener, the Agave soldier fly, Hermetia comstockii (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) (Alcock 1990).”

• cites Alcock 1990 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

More distantly related soldier flies do not lek: Merosargus cingulatus mate near their oviposition site of decomposing vegetation and Inopus rubiceps engages in scramble competition.

“However, more distantly related soldier flies do not lek: Merosargus cingulatus , which mate near their oviposition site of decomposing vegetation (Barbosa  2011), and Inopus rubiceps (Macquart) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) which engages in scramble competition (Alcock 1990).”

• cites Barbosa 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Alcock 1990 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Following copulation, female BSF typically begin laying eggs between 4 and 6 days of their introduction into the breeding environment, though the pre-oviposition period can be greatly lengthened at temperatures below 30°C or shortened with increasing temperatures up to BSF's maximum threshold.

“Following copulation, female BSF typically begin laying eggs between 4 and 6 days of their introduction into the breeding environment, though the pre-­ oviposition period can be greatly lengthened at temperatures below 30°C or shortened with increasing temperatures up to BSF's maximum threshold (Chia et al. 2018).”

• cites Chia et al. 2018 sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Delaying mating is suspected to cause females to haphazardly lay eggs far away from the larval substrate, as can environmental stress.

“Likewise, delaying mating (e.g., as an artifact of experimental set-­ up) is suspected to cause females to haphazardly lay eggs when females lay single (or additional) clutches (Dickerson et  al.  2024; Muraro et  al.  2024; Lemke et  al.  2024) far away from the larval substrate, as can environmental stress (Lemke, Li, Dickerson, et  al.  2025).”

• cites Dickerson et al. 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Muraro et al. 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lemke et al. 2024 sourceCould not verify

  The Discussion (§4.3; page unavailable) speculates that delayed mating might explain higher female mortality, not where females lay eggs. The Methods (§2.5; page unavailable) describe clutches collected in egg traps but do not link delayed mating to haphazard laying or laying away from larval substrate. I searched for delayed mating, additional clutches, and oviposition away from substrate; the environmental-stress clause is cited to a different paper. (LLM, conf=0.75)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

For BSF in captivity, the majority of matings occur on the first or second day after being introduced to mating cages, but continue at a low rate after this, reaching a plateau between days 4 and 6.

“For BSF in captivity, the majority of matings occur on the first or second day after being introduced to mating cages, but continue to occur at a low rate after this, reaching a plateau between days 4 and 6 (Tomberlin et al. 2002; Dickerson et al. 2024; Lemke et al. 2024).”

• cites Tomberlin et al. 2002Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Dickerson et al. 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lemke et al. 2024 sourcePartly supported

  Methods §2.5 reports that mating events were counted for 6–7 days and that their distribution plateaued after that period. Discussion §4.3 describes mating intensity as generally peaking by the third day, but the paper does not establish that most matings occurred on days 1–2 or that mating reached a plateau between days 4 and 6. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Oviposition timing varies based on biological age and mating experience.

“This timing varies based on biological age (Dickerson et  al.  2024) and mating experience (Permana et  al.  2020).”

• cites Dickerson et al. 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Permana et al. 2020 sourcePartly supported

  Permana et al. are cited for the mating-experience part, not the biological-age part. The Abstract (page unavailable) reports that mates’ virginity significantly influenced oviposition frequency, but it does not establish that the timing of oviposition changed. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

In equal sex ratio populations of 500 male and 500 female BSF, only 43-120 mating events were observed over a week, indicating that a minority of males likely secure the bulk of matings.

“In fact, in equal sex ratio populations of 500 male and 500 female BSF, only 43-120 mating events were observed over a week, indicating that a minority of males likely secure the bulk of matings (Meyermans et al. 2025).”

• cites Meyermans et al. 2025 sourcePartly supported

  BSF rearing (p. 3) confirms that each tent held 500 males and 500 females, with matings recorded during eight days of periodic observations. Reproduction parameters (p. 4) reports 43 matings for one strain, but also reports counts up to 200, so 43–120 does not describe the full range. The paper does not establish which males mated or whether a minority secured most matings. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Seminal components transferred by males to females may contribute to female longevity, potentially acting as nuptial gifts for females to digest by supplying amino acids and/or lipids that may support egg development and/or metabolic function.

“Interestingly, the seminal components transferred by males to females may contribute to female longevity, potentially acting as nuptial gifts (Harjoko et al. 2023) for females to digest (Manas et al. 2024) by supplying amino acids and/or lipids that may support egg development and/or metabolic function.”

• cites Harjoko et al. 2023 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Manas et al. 2024 sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Mating success in BSF can be dependent on biotic factors (sex ratio, density) and abiotic factors (light, temperature, stressors), and mating frequencies can vary dramatically across populations and colonies.

“It can be dependent on both biotic-e.g., sex ratio, density (Hoc et  al.  2019)-and abiotic factors (e.g. light, temperature, stressors (Dearlove et  al.  2025)) and experimental studies suggest that mating frequencies can vary dramatically across populations and colonies (Jones and Tomberlin 2021; Dickerson et  al.  2024; Lemke et  al.  2024; Lemke, Li, Dickerson, et”

• cites Hoc et al. 2019 sourceSupported
• cites Dearlove et al. 2025 sourcePartly supported

  The section “Stressors in mass-reared insects” identifies temperature and light as environmental conditions to standardize and discusses how stressors can affect insect health. It does not establish that these factors affect mating success in black soldier flies. The biotic factors and variation in mating frequency are attributed to other citations in the citing sentence. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Jones and Tomberlin 2021 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

In much smaller groups of 15 male and 15 female BSF, nearly half of the males never mated; half of the successful males mated repeatedly, producing a pronounced reproductive skew.

“In much smaller groups of 15 male and 15 female BSF, nearly half of the males never mated. Half of the successful males mated repeatedly, producing a pronounced reproductive skew (Manas, Venon, et al. 2025).”

• cites Manas, Venon, et al. 2025 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Fecundity and fertility can trade-off at industrial scale, and larval nutrition can induce phenotypic plasticity in both female fecundity and fertility.

“Fecundity and fertility (i.e., the proportion of larvae that hatch) can trade-­ off at industrial scale (Hoc et al. 2019) and recent study suggests that larval nutrition can induce phenotypic plasticity in both female fecundity as well as fertility (Zhang and Puniamoorthy 2025) (see Box 6).”

• cites Hoc et al. 2019 sourcePartly supported

  In Results > Density and sex, female-dominant cages produced more egg mass at higher densities but had a lower hatching rate (93.5% versus 96.5%), supporting a trade-off in the tested cages. The paper does not establish that this trade-off occurs at industrial scale. The larval-nutrition claim is attributed to Zhang and Puniamoorthy (2025), not to this source. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Zhang and Puniamoorthy 2025 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

The temporal pattern of mating appears generally consistent across experiments and is highly correlated (98%) to oviposition events 2-3 days later.

“Importantly, recent work has shown this temporal pattern appears to generally be consistent across experiments and are highly correlated (98%) to oviposition events 2-3 days later (Lemke, Li, and De Smet 2025).”

• cites Lemke, Li, and De Smet 2025 sourcePartly supported

  The Cross Correlation of Time Series Data section (page unavailable) reports a 97.54% average percent correlation between mating and oviposition in traps at a two-day lag, reasonably rounded to 98%. But oviposition outside traps reached only about 72% at a three-day lag. The analysis used two trials from one experiment, so it does not establish that the 98% relationship is consistent across experiments. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

The total number of stored sperm can range from a few hundred to several thousand, and it may take about 48 h for approximately 50% of transferred sperm to reach the sperm storage reservoirs.

“The total number of stored sperm can range from a few hundred to several thousand (Manas et al. 2024) and it may take about 48 h for approximately 50% of transferred sperm to reach the sperm storage reservoirs.”

• cites Manas et al. 2024 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

These translucent windows are thought to have evolved to mimic the petiole of Polistes paper wasps.

“These translucent windows are thought to have evolved to mimic the petiole of Polistes paper wasps (James  1935; Alcock  1990).”

• cites James 1935Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Alcock 1990 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction (page not supplied) says Hermetia comstocki appears to be a Batesian mimic of Polistes paper wasps. It does not say that translucent windows mimic the wasps’ petiole or that those windows evolved for that purpose; searches for those features found no supporting passage. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

A single ejaculate is sufficient to fill a female's sperm reservoirs in excess, challenging the previous hypothesis that females were sperm limited; a single mating can support multiple egg clutches.

“Recent work demonstrated that a single ejaculate is sufficient to fill a female's sperm reservoirs in excess, which challenges the previous hypothesis that females were sperm limited (Permana et al. 2020). Instead, a single mating can support multiple egg clutches.”

• cites Permana et al. 2020 sourceCould not verify

  The Abstract describes an experiment on mate virginity, remating, and oviposition frequency, but does not report ejaculate volume or sperm-reservoir capacity. Searches for sperm limitation and multiple egg clutches found no passage establishing that one mating supplies enough sperm for multiple clutches. (LLM, conf=0.70)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Intentional selection on larval feed conversion rates, adult body weights and fecundity can yield rapid responses but increase the risk of inbreeding depression, especially as a consequence of unintentional artificial selection.

“Intentional selection on larval feed conversion rates, adult body weights and fecundity can yield rapid responses but increase the risk of inbreeding depression (Meyermans et al. 2025), especially as a consequence of unintentional artificial selection (e.g., for BSF that perform well in captivity, such as those that survive abiotic shocks, those that oviposit in traps and those”

• cites Meyermans et al. 2025 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction (p. 2) reports that long-term selection increased BSF larval weight, supporting the general potential for a response to selection. It does not establish rapid responses from selection on larval feed conversion, adult body weight, and fecundity, or say that such selection increases inbreeding-depression risk. The unintentional-selection explanation follows the citation in the citing sentence. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The degree to which sperm precedence follows 'last male wins' patterns in BSF is unknown, nor how this pattern may break down with high amounts of remating or as flies senesce.

“However, the degree to which sperm precedence follows 'last male wins' patterns, as seen in other Diptera, is unknown, nor how this pattern may subsequently break down with high amounts of remating (Zeh and Zeh 1997; Laturney et al. 2018) or as flies senesce (Mack et al. 2003).”

• cites Zeh and Zeh 1997Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Laturney et al. 2018 sourceSupported
• cites Mack et al. 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Sperm length in BSF is unusually long for internally fertilizing animals and is sensitive to larval diet quality, suggesting potential trade-offs between sperm quality and quantity that could shape outcomes among sperm competing within the female genital tract and sperm storage organs.

“Moreover, as mentioned, sperm length in BSF (Malawey et al. 2019, 2020) is unusually long for internally fertilizing animals and is sensitive to larval diet quality (Zhang and Puniamoorthy 2025), suggesting potential trade-­ offs between sperm quality and quantity that could shape outcomes among sperm competing within the genital tract of the female and her sperm storage organs.”

• cites Malawey et al. 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Malawey et al. 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Zhang and Puniamoorthy 2025 sourceCould not verify

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 2 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

This raises the possibility of BSF actually being a cryptic species complex and provides an avenue to examine potential mechanisms governing reproductive isolation under domestication.

“This raises the possibility of BSF actually being a cryptic species complex (Ståhls et al. 2020; Generalovic et al. 2023; Athanassiou et al. 2024) and provides an avenue to examine potential mechanisms governing reproductive isolation under domestication.”

• cites Ståhls et al. 2020 sourceSupported
• cites Generalovic et al. 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Athanassiou et al. 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Recent genomic surveys indicate substantial diversity among global BSF populations, including rapid genomic differentiation between strains under artificial selection.

“Recent genomic surveys indicate substantial diversity among global BSF populations (Ståhls et al. 2020), including rapid genomic differentiation between strains under artificial selection (Silvaraju et  al.  2026).”

• cites Ståhls et al. 2020 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion (‘High COI barcode diversity’) reports very high mitochondrial COI variability in BSF sampled across regions, supporting the diversity portion attributed to Ståhls et al. It also says that this variability was not mirrored by the two nuclear markers studied, so describing the finding as one from genomic surveys overstates what this paper establishes. The artificial-selection clause is cited to a different source and is not part of this verdict. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Silvaraju et al. 2026Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Phenotypic plasticity driven by larval diet influences key reproductive traits in BSF, including adult body size, fecundity and sperm length, and interacts with heritable variation to shape evolutionary potential.

“Phenotypic plasticity (West-­ Eberhard 1989) driven by larval diet influences key reproductive traits in BSF, including adult body size, fecundity and sperm length, that also interacts with heritable variation to shape evolutionary potential (Gobbi et  al.  2013; Shrestha et al. 2025; Zhang and Puniamoorthy 2025).”

• cites West-Eberhard 1989 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Gobbi et al. 2013 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion reports variation in BSF body size and fecundity among flies reared on different larval diets. It does not report effects on sperm length or test whether diet-driven plasticity interacts with heritable variation to shape evolutionary potential. Its general observation that wing size can reflect genetic and environmental variables does not establish that interaction. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Shrestha et al. 2025 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In BSF, recent studies document polygynandry, steep reproductive skews, extended sperm storage and possible cryptic female choice, including ejaculate digestion and selective sperm retention.

“In BSF, recent studies document polygynandry, steep reproductive skews, extended sperm storage and possible cryptic female choice, including ejaculate digestion and selective sperm retention (Muraro et al. 2024; Manas et al. 2024; Manas, Labrousse, and Bressac 2025).”

• cites Muraro et al. 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Manas et al. 2024 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction reports a polygynandrous mating system in BSF, and the Discussion reports prolonged sperm storage and evidence suggesting possible sperm digestion. The paper does not document steep reproductive skews or selective sperm retention in BSF; its discussion of sperm-based cryptic female choice describes mechanisms in other species, not a demonstrated BSF finding. No page numbers are provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Manas, Labrousse, and Bressac 2025 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Continuous production makes it difficult to identify and control for variation and perpetuates variation because eggs are fertilized by a heterogeneous group of flies.

“it has the significant drawbacks of making it difficult to precisely identify and control for variation that accrues throughout various steps in the industrial production cycle, as well as perpetuating this variation because any collected eggs will be fertilized and laid by a heterogenous group of flies (Lemke, Li, Dickerson, et al. 2025).”

• cites Lemke, Li, Dickerson, et al. 2025 sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract (page unavailable) says introducing flies before older flies are removed creates a mixed-age breeding population, and it reports differences in egg yield and fertility between mixed- and same-age cohorts. It does not say that continuous industrial production makes variation across production steps difficult to identify or control, or that eggs perpetuate that variation. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

BSF of multiple size-classes successfully mate, although with dramatically increased variability.

“Indeed BSF of multiple size-­ classes successfully mate, although with dramatically increased variability (Jones and Tomberlin 2021).”

• cites Jones and Tomberlin 2021 sourcePartly supported

  The Mating observations section reports successful pairings between large and small black soldier flies, with different numbers of pairs across size combinations. The Oviposition and hatch rate section reports dramatically greater variability specifically in egg hatch rate in heterogeneous populations; it does not establish dramatically increased variability in mating success, as the citing sentence could imply. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Another study shows increased production traits as a result of inbreeding in BSF.

“another shows the opposite, with increased production traits as a result of inbreeding (Cai et al. 2022).”

• cites Cai et al. 2022 sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract reports that overall egg production in the selectively inbred BSF strain was 1.5 times that of the Wuhan strain. But the Discussion (§4.3) says the mechanism remains unclear, and the Conclusions say the advantage *may* reflect inbreeding selection. The claim presents inbreeding as an established cause and describes the improvement more broadly than the measured egg-production result. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Adult BSF access to water and nutrient supplements can extend lifespan, shorten pre-oviposition intervals, and increase egg production under several conditions.

“Adult BSF's access to water and nutrient supplements (e.g., honey, pollen, or sugar water) can extend lifespan, shorten pre-­ oviposition intervals and increase egg production under several conditions (Thinn and Kainoh  2022; Klüber et  al.  2023; Barrett et  al.  2025).”

• cites Thinn and Kainoh 2022 sourcePartly supported

  The Results (§§1–2, page unavailable) show that adults given sugar-, pollen-, or honey-containing diets lived longer and produced more eggs than adults given water alone. The paper reports oviposition duration and peak egg-laying days, but not a shortened pre-oviposition interval. It also does not experimentally compare access to water with no water. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Klüber et al. 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Barrett et al. 2025 sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract reports that adults given a preferred yeast–molasses diet rather than water alone lived 4–6 days longer and laid more eggs on days 2–5 after eclosion. It does not report a shorter pre-oviposition interval, and its tested supplement was not honey, pollen, or sugar water. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Providing perches may allow BSF, especially females, to conserve energy and reduce negative effects of crowding.

“Providing perches may allow BSF (and especially females) to conserve energy and help to reduce any negative effects of crowding (Lemke et al. 2024).”

• cites Lemke et al. 2024 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Spatial separation of mating and oviposition zones, provisioning of microclimates, and control of light gradients can enhance reproductive success in captive BSF.

“suggest that spatial separation of the mating and oviposition zones within cages, proper provisioning of microclimates and a precise control of light gradients can enhance reproductive success (Lemke, Li, Dickerson, et al. 2025).”

• cites Lemke, Li, Dickerson, et al. 2025 sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract reports that oviposition-attractant timing affected egg yield and hypothesizes that limited spatial segregation in small cages may reduce mate quality. It does not say that separating mating and oviposition zones, provisioning microclimates, or controlling light gradients enhances reproductive success; its spatial-segregation hypothesis concerns mixed-age flies, not distinct activity zones. (LLM, conf=0.77)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

There is an optimum plant density for BSF mating, with too little not beneficial and too much potentially hindering mating.

“Theoretically there should be an optimum: too little is not beneficial, but too much may be a physical or visual hinderance to mating (Lemke et al. 2024).”

• cites Lemke et al. 2024 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

BSF symbiotic microbes release VOCs that are attractive to mature females and drive detection and oviposition behaviour.

“It is these microbes (i.e., colonizing the surface of eggs and larvae, as well as living in the gut and substrates of the larval media) (Heussler et al. 2023) which release VOCs that have evolved to be attractive to mature females, driving detection and oviposition behaviour (Zheng et al. 2013).”

• cites Heussler et al. 2023 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

• cites Zheng et al. 2013 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion (page not provided) says bacteria isolated from conspecifics on decomposing material attract gravid black soldier flies, presumably through emitted volatiles; the Abstract reports effects on oviposition preference. The paper does not establish that the bacteria release the proposed VOCs or that those VOCs evolved to attract females. Its evolutionary statement concerns flies evolving to detect resources, not microbes evolving to attract flies. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

In 111 other insects and arthropods, same-sex sexual (SSS) behaviour is more common between males than females and is highly associated with captivity, high-rearing densities and the presence of female pheromones.

“Interestingly, the examination of same-­ sex sexual (SSS) behaviours in 111 other insects and arthropods revealed that SSS is more common between males than females and is highly associated with captivity, high-­ rearing densities and the presence of female pheromones (Scharf and Martin 2013).”

• cites Scharf and Martin 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The relationship between duration of wing buzzing and mating success in BSF is inconsistent across studies, with some reporting a positive correlation, some the opposite trend, and some no correlation at all.

“Some experiments suggest a positive correlation between duration of wing buzzing and mating success (Giunti et al. 2018), others have reporting the opposite trend (Laudani et al. 2024) or no correlation at all (Kortsmit et al. 2025).”

• cites Giunti et al. 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Laudani et al. 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Kortsmit et al. 2025 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Sperm transfer is not a continuous process; sperm is delivered only in the lattermost portion of copulation (e.g., after ~25 min), following the transmission of seminal fluids.

“Crucially, sperm transfer is not a continuous process. Dissection of females at different times throughout mating suggests that sperm is delivered only in the lattermost portion of copulation (e.g., after ~25 min), following the transmission of seminal fluids (Manas, Labrousse, and Bressac 2025).”

• cites Manas, Labrousse, and Bressac 2025 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

After copulation, both sexes perform grooming behaviours, with females typically grooming for a longer period than males (~300 versus 100 s).

“Copulation then ceases when both sexes disengage, after which both sexes perform grooming behaviours, with females typically grooming for a longer period than males (~300 versus 100 s) (Giunti et al. 2018; Laudani et al. 2024) (Box 4).”

• cites Giunti et al. 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Laudani et al. 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

There exists debate as to whether lekking as a whole is preserved in captivity and whether large aggregations are a prerequisite for mating.

“Overall, there exists debate as to whether lekking as a whole is preserved in captivity (Lemke et al. 2023) and whether large aggregations are a prerequisite for mating (Laudani et al. 2024).”

• cites Lemke et al. 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Laudani et al. 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Overall mating duration is prolonged in sibling crosses and amongst individuals that experienced poor larval nutrition.

“Additionally, overall mating duration is prolonged in sibling crosses (Laudani et al. 2024) and amongst individuals that experienced poor larval nutrition (Zhang, Ng, et al. 2025).”

• cites Laudani et al. 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Zhang, Ng, et al. 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Observing colour changes in the abdominal windows can serve as a non-invasive indicator of biological aging and has been successfully adopted for population management in industrial settings.

“Observing colour changes in the abdominal windows can serve as a non-­ invasive indicator of biological aging and has been successfully adopted for population management in industrial settings (Salari and De Goede 2024).”

• cites Salari and De Goede 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Examination of egg clutches from breeding cage experiments has revealed that both fertility and neonate viability can vary substantially, with portions of eggs not developing, developing eyespots but not hatching, hatching but not surviving, or hatching and surviving and reproducing.

“Examination of egg clutches collected from breeding cage experiments has revealed that both fertility and neonate viability can vary in substantial ways, with a portion of eggs (from multiple clutches) not developing at all, a portion developing eyespots but otherwise not hatching, a portion hatching but not surviving, as well as a portion that hatches, survives and successfully reproduces (A.”

• cites A. Dickerson, unpublished dataNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Male BSF have been observed to mate up to four, five or six times, and females up to twice, but higher female polyandry up to five times has been supported by parentage assignments.

“Behavioural assays have observed male BSF to mate up to four (Chiabotto et al. 2024; Laudani et al. 2024), five (Jensen et al. 2025) or six times (Manas, Venon, et al. 2025) and females up to twice (Chiabotto et al. 2024) but higher female polyandry, up to five times, has been supported by parentage assignments (Hoffmann et al. 2021).”

• cites Chiabotto et al. 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Laudani et al. 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Jensen et al. 2025 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Observations from both laboratory and industrial settings report older BSF frequently crashing to the cage floor during flight or spinning erratically after having broken one of their wings, which can explain some of their injuries.

“Observations from both laboratory and industrial settings report older BSF frequently crashing to the cage floor during flight or even spinning erratically after having broken one of their wings, which can explain some of their injuries.”

May combine two claims.

Older males exhibit reduced mating frequency and fertility due to declining sperm viability.

“Older males exhibit reduced mating frequency (Dickerson et al. 2024) and fertility due to declining sperm viability (Malawey et al. 2020).”

• cites Dickerson et al. 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Malawey et al. 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Off-target egg laying can quickly snowball because females are attracted to VOCs released by eggs, which might then signal to additional females to lay their eggs in off-target locations.

“Off-­ target egg laying can quickly snowball because females are attracted to VOCs released by eggs (Klüber et al. 2024), which might then signal to additional females to lay their eggs in off-­ target locations.”

• cites Klüber et al. 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

BSF is a (hybrid) capital breeder; adult reproduction relies almost entirely on larval-derived reserves, decoupling gametogenesis and courtship investment from adult foraging.

“As mentioned, being a (hybrid) capital breeder (Stephens et al. 2009), adult reproduction relies almost entirely on larval-­ derived reserves, thereby decoupling gametogenesis and courtship investment from adult foraging.”

• cites Stephens et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Laboratory studies show BSF can adapt within generations to suboptimal diets, supporting their use in experimental evolution.

“Laboratory studies show BSF can adapt within generations to suboptimal diets (Jiggins 2024), supporting their use in experimental evolution.”

• cites Jiggins 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Comparative studies show how sperm traits evolve under such competition: Drosophila bifurca produces the longest sperm in the animal kingdom, whereas lepidopterans package sperm into nutrient-rich spermatophores.

“Comparative studies show how sperm traits evolve under such competition: Drosophila bifurca produces the longest sperm in the animal kingdom, whereas lepidopterans package sperm into nutrient-­ rich spermatophores (Pitnick et al. 1995; Vahed 1998).”

• cites Pitnick et al. 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Vahed 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Insects such as Drosophila, crickets and butterflies can bias sperm use through differential storage or ejection of sperm from less-preferred males.

“For instance, insects such as Drosophila , crickets and butterflies can bias sperm use through differential storage or ejection of sperm from less-­ preferred males (Eberhard  1991).”

• cites Eberhard 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In insects, dozens of mechanisms of cryptic female choice have been uncovered.

“In insects, dozens of such mechanisms have been uncovered (Shuker and Simmons  2014).”

• cites Shuker and Simmons 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

BSF males can mate up to 4-5 times, whereas females might only remate twice.

“BSF males can mate up to 4-5 times (Jensen et al. 2025), whereas females might only remate twice (Chiabotto et al. 2024).”

• cites Jensen et al. 2025 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Chiabotto et al. 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Female clutch size and egg viability decline with age, and egg collections from mixed age cohorts will exhibit greater variability in survival and overall fitness.

“Similarly, female clutch size and egg viability decline with age and egg collections from mixed age cohorts will undoubtedly exhibit a greater variability in survival and overall fitness.”

May combine two claims.

Males may transfer seminal fluid proteins (e.g., sex peptides) that influence female re-mating latency or stimulate reproductive development.

“In addition, males may transfer seminal fluid proteins (e.g., sex peptides) that influence female re-­ mating latency or stimulate reproductive development (Kubli 1992).”

• cites Kubli 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Mating in BSF has been shown to reduce male longevity whilst increasing females', suggesting a potential trade-off between mating frequency and fitness for each sex.

“But conversely, mating in BSF has been shown to reduce male longevity whilst increasing females', suggesting a potential trade-­ off between mating frequency and fitness for each sex (Harjoko et al. 2023).”

• cites Harjoko et al. 2023 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Adult foraging can extend lifespan and enhance reproductive output in BSF.

“Adult foraging can nevertheless extend lifespan and enhance reproductive output (Zhang, Ng, et al. 2025; Kortsmit et al. 2025).”

• cites Zhang, Ng, et al. 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Kortsmit et al. 2025 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The timing of BSF emergence is sensitive to larval nutrition and is linked with size dimorphism.

“though the timing of emergence is sensitive to larval nutrition (Zhang, Ng, et al. 2025) and is linked with size dimorphism (Generalovic et al. 2025).”

• cites Zhang, Ng, et al. 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Generalovic et al. 2025 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

BSF adults do not require feeding for gametogenesis; successful adult reproduction relies almost entirely on fat body reserves accumulated during the larval stage.

“By contrast, BSF adults do not require feeding for gametogenesis. Instead, successful adult reproduction relies almost entirely on fat body reserves accumulated during the larval stage occur (Tomberlin and Sheppard 2002).”

• cites Tomberlin and Sheppard 2002Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The duration of sexual bimaturism in BSF is modulated by larval nutrition and interacts with body size and longevity; larvae that take longer to develop become larger adults.

“The duration of this developmental gap between male and female emergence, also known as sexual bimaturism (SBM), is modulated by larval nutrition and interacts with body size and longevity (Generalovic et al. 2025); larvae that take longer to develop become larger adults.”

• cites Generalovic et al. 2025 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Acoustic signals may play a role in sex discrimination in BSF once mounted.

“Recent work in BSF suggests that acoustic signals may play a role in sex discrimination once mounted”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

BSF lack sexual dimorphism in their cuticular hydrocarbon (CHC) profiles.

“Supporting evidence for this hypothesis comes from the lack of sexual dimorphism in their cuticular hydrocarbon (CHC) profiles (Lemke et al. 2023)”

• cites Lemke et al. 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Because adult nutrition cannot compensate for the nutritional history experienced as larvae, any variation in larval diet is directly reflected in adult reproductive performance, especially in captive or industrial systems where many producers do not feed adults.

“Because adult nutrition cannot compensate for the nutritional history experienced as larvae, any variation in larval diet is directly reflected in adult reproductive performance, especially in captive or industrial systems where many producers do not feed adults.”

May combine two claims.

In captivity, BSF generation time is generally between 6 and 7 weeks, meaning 7 generations can occur per year.

“The generation time is thus generally between 6 and 7 weeks, meaning 7 generations can occur per year”

May combine two claims.

BSF are an ideal system to address questions about nutritional legacies, abiotic conditions, mating system evolution under domestication, pre- and post-copulatory sexual selection, and reproductive barriers.

“Specifically, we believe that BSF are an ideal system to address:”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Protandry is thought to allow males to monopolise access by being present and ready to mate as soon as females become receptive, thereby minimizing the time females spend unmated.

“It is thought to allow males to monopolise access by being present and ready to mate as soon as females become receptive, thereby minimizing the time females spend unmated (Zhang, Henawy, et al. 2025; Fagerström and Wiklund 1982).”

• cites Zhang, Henawy, et al. 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Fagerström and Wiklund 1982 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Female BSF carry between 300 and 900 eggs.

“Females carry between 300 and 900 eggs”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In an industrial setting, dedicated mating arenas and oviposition areas within the cage could enhance reproductive success.

“This suggests that in an industrial setting, dedicated mating arenas and oviposition areas within the cage could enhance reproductive success (Salari and De Goede 2024)”

• cites Salari and De Goede 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The wide global distribution, pronounced larval nutritional flexibility, rapid genomic divergence and high industrial relevance of BSF together provide a powerful system for investigating phenotypic plasticity and the mechanisms between selection, genetic drift and reproductive isolation.

“Altogether, the wide global distribution, pronounced larval nutritional flexibility, rapid genomic divergence and high industrial relevance of BSF together provide a powerful system for investigating phenotypic plasticity and the mechanisms between selection, genetic drift and reproductive isolation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Protandry occurs in ~36% of investigated insect species.

“This strategy is common in butterflies and other insects, occurring in ~36% of investigated insect species (Teder et al. 2021).”

• cites Teder et al. 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Temporal patterns in BSF perching and flight activity mirror that of other diurnal lekking insects.

“Such temporal patterns in perching and flight activity mirror that of other diurnal lekking insects (Michiels and Dhondt 1989)”

• cites Michiels and Dhondt 1989Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Lekking itself is no longer viewed within a strict definition.

“However, lekking itself is no longer viewed within a strict definition (Alcock 1987).”

• cites Alcock 1987 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

When females become rare, the mating system can shift to either resource-defence polygyny or female-defence polygyny once males start to monopolise female resources or the females themselves.

“Conversely, when females become rare, the mating system can shift to either resource-­ defence polygyny or female-­ defence polygyny once males start to monopolise female resources or the females themselves (Buzatto and Machado  2008), respectively.”

• cites Buzatto and Machado 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The lek mating system can be modelled along a gradient of increasing resource dependence and mate monopolization and can shift dynamically if underlying factors change.

“Moreover, the lek mating system itself also can be modelled along a gradient of increasing resource dependence and mate monopolization (Emlen and Oring  1977; Parker 1978; Thornhill and Alcock 1983) and can shift dynamically if these underlying factors change.”

• cites Emlen and Oring 1977 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Parker 1978 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Thornhill and Alcock 1983 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Each criterion of lekking can be considered as an independent continuum in multidimensional parameter space.

“Each of these criteria can be considered as an independent continuum in multidimensional parameter space similar to the Hutchinsonian niche (Hutchinson 1957), enabling a more holistic view of lekking systems.”

• cites Hutchinson 1957 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Mating 'songs' might need to be performed with the proper rhythm and duration to be accepted by prospective mates.

“Besides pitch and tone, mating 'songs' might need to be performed with the proper rhythm (Eberhard and Gelhaus 2009) and duration to be accepted by prospective mates.”

• cites Eberhard and Gelhaus 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Although some pairs remain mounted from behind, the ability to rotate between the two positions may allow the pair to take flight and relocate in response to disturbance.

“Although some remain mounted from behind (Chiabotto et al. 2024), the ability to rotate between the two positions may allow the pair to take flight and relocate in response to disturbance (pers. obs.).”

• cites Chiabotto et al. 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

These physical changes likely occur from repeated attempts to mate or oviposit despite declining energy reserves, as well as inadequate humidity and/or water resources in the breeding environment.

“These likely occur from repeated attempts to mate or oviposit despite declining energy reserves, as well as inadequate humidity and/or water resources in the breeding environment.”

May combine two claims.

This pattern suggests population substructures (driven via non-random mating) and a low effective population size, which are hallmarks of lek-type mating systems in which a single or a few dominant males monopolise fertilizations.

“This pattern suggests population substructures (driven via non-­ random mating) and a low effective population size, which are hallmarks of lek-­ type mating systems in which a single or a few dominant males monopolise fertilizations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Males can differentially adjust their sperm transfer, which is often called cryptic male choice.

“Likewise, males can differentially adjust their sperm transfer, which is often called cryptic male choice (Shuker and Simmons 2014).”

• cites Shuker and Simmons 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Females may regulate sperm uptake or storage or bias fertilization toward preferred males, but such mechanisms remain largely untested in BSF.

“Females may regulate sperm uptake or storage or bias fertilization toward preferred males, but such mechanisms remain largely untested in BSF.”

May combine two claims.

This capital breeding reshapes sexual selection dynamics relative to other income-breeding insects and anautogenous blood-feeding Diptera, creating potential trade-offs among larval resource allocation, somatic growth, longevity and reproductive output.

“This reshapes sexual selection dynamics relative to other income-­ breeding insects (Stephens et  al.  2009) and anautogenous blood-­ feeding Diptera (which require a blood meal to produce eggs), creating potential trade-­ offs among larval resource allocation, somatic growth, longevity and reproductive output (Miller  2005).”

• cites Stephens et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Miller 2005Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Multiple mating by females influences sperm competition among males, a ubiquitous force in insect reproduction.

“Multiple mating by females influences sperm competition among males, a ubiquitous force in insect reproduction (Parker 1970).”

• cites Parker 1970 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Male harassment to secure extra matings may interfere with female oviposition or induce injury, such that increased exposure to males may be negatively associated with female lifetime fitness.

“Male harassment to secure these extra matings may interfere with female oviposition or even induce injury (Pitnick and García-González  2002), such that increased exposure to males may be negatively associated with female lifetime fitness (Fowler and Partridge 1989; Morrow and Gage 2001).”

• cites Pitnick and García-González 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Fowler and Partridge 1989 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Morrow and Gage 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Often, the number of matings that optimizes fitness for males is higher than it is for females, driving such conflicts.

“Often, the number of matings that optimizes fitness for males is higher than it is for females (Wigby and Chapman 2005), driving such conflicts as additional matings for females may be less advantageous for their fitness, but obtaining too few matings will be sub-­ optimal for male fitness.”

• cites Wigby and Chapman 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Male BSF genitalia hypo-allometry allows males to mate with females across a wide range of body sizes and increases their pool of available mates.

“allowing males to mate with females across a wide range of body sizes and increase their pool of available mates (Eberhard et al. 1998)”

• cites Eberhard et al. 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Domesticated and selectively bred BSF lines can exhibit markedly reduced heterozygosity and form distinct population clusters.

“recent work demonstrates that domesticated and selectively bred lines can exhibit markedly reduced heterozygosity and form distinct population clusters, highlighting the genetic consequences of intensive breeding programmes (Silvaraju et al. 2026).”

• cites Silvaraju et al. 2026Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Selective breeding and prolonged captive rearing can rapidly erode genetic diversity and shrink effective population size in BSF.

“The genomic data from Silvaraju et  al.  (2026) further reveal that selective breeding and prolonged captive rearing can rapidly erode genetic diversity and shrink effective population size”

• cites Silvaraju et al. 2026Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Mating experiments between Singapore wild-caught and Spanish commercial BSF strains produced successful hybrids, indicating reproductive incompatibilities were not absolute between those strains.

“An earlier study noted that mating experiments between Singapore wild-­ caught flies and Spanish commercial strains ( COI distance ~3.7%-4.0%) produced successful hybrids, indicating that reproductive incompatibilities were not yet absolute between those two strains.”

May combine two claims.

Cage compartmentalization to physically isolate different BSF cohorts should help maintain proper iOSR and age-structure, increasing fertile egg production.

“different cohorts of flies may be physically isolated through cage compartmentalization to (Salari and De Goede 2024) which ultimately should help to maintain a proper iOSR and age-­ structure of the breeding zone, increasing fertile egg production.”

• cites Salari and De Goede 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

BSF is a non-pest, lekking species that is easily culturable, and provides an avenue to study reproductive processes in a wide range of species with similar life history and reproductive traits.

“As a non-­ pest, lekking species that is easily culturable, meaning BSF provides an avenue to study reproductive processes that are happening in a wide range of species with similar life history and reproductive traits.”

May combine two claims.

Some VOCs, such as decanoic acid, delay oviposition behaviour in BSF, while others increase off-target laying.

“some compounds (e.g., decanoic acid) have been shown to delay oviposition behaviour in BSF, whereas others increase off target laying.”