CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 145Indian and Buddhist StudiesEurasian Exchange NetworksGlobal Maritime and Colonial Histories

Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange within and beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia

Open access
Neelis, Jason·2011·BRILL eBooks
DOI 10.1163/ej.9789004181595.i-372
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

This book examines catalysts for Buddhist formation in ancient South Asia and expansion throughout and beyond the northwestern Indian subcontinent to Central Asia by investigating symbiotic relationships between networks of religious mobility and trade. Readership: Readers with interests in the history of Buddhism, South Asian religions and economy, premodern trade routes, cultural geography, and cross-cultural interactions between India, Central Asia, Iran, and the Hellenistic world.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1163/ej.9789004181595.i-372

Cites

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Buddhism most likely reached China directly in the form of 'long-distance transmission' rather than through a relayed or contact transmission through Central Asia or Southeast Asia.

    “However, rather than a relayed (or 'contact') transmission through Central Asia or Southeast Asia, Buddhism most likely reached China directly in form of 'long-distance transmission'.”

    From The Spread of Buddhism to China: A Re-examination of the Buddhist Interactions between Ancient India and China (2012) · cites this paper as Neelis 2011

    The 'Diffusion vs. Long-Distance Transmission' section describes early Chinese Buddhism as arising through long-distance transmission rather than gradual contact expansion. But the Chapter 6 overview explicitly describes transmission through Xinjiang in Central Asia, and the author cautions that long-distance transmission and contact expansion overlap. The source therefore does not support 'directly' if that means bypassing Central Asia, or the categorical contrast in the claim; no page numbers are available in the supplied copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

The citation lists haven’t been fetched yet

References 267 · Cited by 145

Research works printed but not linked: 415

  1. References to the borderland inhabitants of the northwestern frontiers of the Mauryan empire suggest that the Dharma-mahāmātras were and Upatisa-pasine with Suttanipāta vv. 955-975) are uncertainly agreed upon (Schopen 1997a [1985a]: 24-5). 73 Thapar 1961: 256. 74 Translation according to Thapar 1961: 252 (see pp. 156-158 for additional com- mentary on mahāmātras, although viewing these officials as social welfare agents is probably anachronistic). and Institutional Connections in the Pre-and Early Kus ān a Periods." In Srinivasan 2007: 267-285. Senior 2001: 1.89-94, 2.136-143 treats Apraca coins.
  2. Rahman, Abdur. 1999. "The Role of the Ud is and Aprācas in the Spread of Buddhism: A lost chapter of the History of Gandhāra." Lahore Museum Bulletin 12, 3-18 is a very brief overview.
  3. Salomon, Richard. 1996b. "An Inscribed Silver Buddhist Reliquary of the Time of King Kharaosta and Prince Indravarman." Journal of the American Oriental Society 116, 450; Senior 2001: 1.90, and Srivastava 2007: 139 differ considerably. 160
  4. Lenz, Timothy. 2010. Gandhāran Avadānas. GBT 6. Seattle; London: University of Washington Press, 85-93 (Avadāna 8); Salomon 1999a: 145-150; Marshall 1951, 1.188, 2.613 (= CKI 190: http://www.ebmp.org/a_inscription.php?catid=CKI0190). chapter two foreign support does not withstand scrutiny. 259 Claims that "Brahmani- cal Hinduism became dominant all over India, and other religious sys- tems were more or less neglected" (Chatterjee 2005: 199) are typically followed by retractions (". . . but Buddhism retained its hold in many centres"), since Buddhist material and cultural contributions as well as internal developments during this period are difficult to overlook. 260
  5. Willis, Michael. 2005. "Late Gupta History: Inscriptions, Coins and Historical Ideology." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 3rd series, 15.2, 131-150. 262
  6. Ali, Daud. 2004. Courtly Culture and Political Life in Early Medieval India. Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press also highlights the significance of the "Vākāt aka- Gupta imperial formation" as the beginning of a "400-year period (c. 350-750 CE) which saw the development, crystallization, and proliferation of a common political culture throughout all major regions of the subcontinent" (2004: 20). 277 Williams 1982: 40-55; Willis 2009. 278 Fleet 1888: 29-34 (no. 5); Williams 1982: 37. 279 Dates for Kumāragupta I are fixed by the Bilsad pillar inscription of Gupta year 96 (415-416 CE) and the Dāmodarpur copper-plates of Gupta year 128 (447 CE) (Willis 2005: 136). 280 Fleet 1888: 39-47 (nos. 8-11); Sircar 1965: 285-295; Bhandarkar et al. 1981: 77-78 refer to Buddhist and Jain donations. 281 Bakker 1997: 25-29; Bakker 2006: 178-179; Willis 2005: 136. In later Gupta genealogies, Purugupta is listed as Kumāragupta's successor. 282 Fleet 1888: 56-65, no. 14; Sircar 1965: 307-316. The appointment of Parn adatta and his son Cakrapālita as hereditary Gupta regional administrators apparently resulted from a practice of "appointing protectors (or 'mini-Guptas': goptr n) in all countries" (sarvves u deśes u vidhāya goptr n, line 6, verse 7). 283 Translation by Salomon (1998a: 275) of the Kahāum Pillar Inscription (Fleet 1888: 65-68, no. 15; Sircar 1965: 316-317). 284 Fleet 1988: 52-56, no. 13; Sircar 1965: 321-324. Bhitarī may have been an impe- rial mausoleum for the Guptas (Bhandarkar et al 1981: 83). Huns (Sanskrit Hūn as) are discussed in more detail in Kidāras and Huns in Northwestern Indian subcontinent. 285 The chronology of later Gupta rulers is uncertain, but the genealogy and dates presented in Table-follow Willis 2005, wose reconstruction differs from Bhandarkar et al. 1981: 84-89 (who place Narasim hagupta last in a series of four brothers begin- ning with Vainyagupta). 286 Sircar 1965: 339-340. 287 Sircar 1965: 340-345. 288 Based on Bakker 1997: 168-171 (Appendices II-III); Bakker 2008; Willis 2005: 135, fig. 1. 289 Marriage with Kumāradevī (Licchavī princess). 290 Marriage with daughter of Bhavanāga (Bhāraśiva ruler). 361 Sanderson 2009: 72-73;
  7. Salomon, Richard. 1991. "Epigraphic Remains of Indian Traders in Egypt". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 111.4, 731-736;
  8. Salomon, Richard. 1993. "Addenda to "Epigraphic Remains of Indian Trad- ers in Egypt." Journal of the American Oriental Society. 113.4, 593. Jason Neelis -978-90-04-19458-8 Downloaded from Brill.com07/16/2023 08:58:16AM via free access trade networks in ancient south asia 221
  9. Casson, Lionel. 1986. "P. Vindob G 40822 and the Shipping of Goods from India." Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists 23.3-4, 73-79;
  10. Strauch, Ingo and Michael D. Bukharin. 2004. "Indian Inscriptions from the Cave H oq on Suqut rā (Yemen)." Annali Istituto universitario orientale (Naples, Italy) 64, 121-138. 118 Neither Barbaricon nor Minnagara have been conclusively identified due to the shifting delta of the lower Indus River, but Barbaricon can probably be localized at or new Barbhore in Sindh in southern Pakistan. The statement that "the throne is in the hands of the Parthians, who are constantly chasing each other off it" (Casson 1989: 75) may refer to the political situation in this region during the middle to late first century CE, perhaps following the reign of Gondophares. See Chapter 2, subchapter: Indo-Parthians: Mahārāja Gondophares of the Gondopharids? (pp. 123-125) for a brief overview of chonological and historical issues. 119 Costus corresponds to Sanskrit kus t ha, a medicinal herb from the Kashmir val- ley (Casson 1989: 191; Rawlinson 1916: 124-5; Warmington 1928: 197-8). 120 According to Rawlinson 1916: 125 and Warmington 1928: 205, lykion (or lycium) was a medicine (a yellowish dye used as an astringent) and cosmetic extracted from the western Himalayan barberry. Casson (1989: 192-3) seems to prefer an iden- tification of lykion with extract from the wood of Acacia catechu grown throughout India and Burma. 121 Bdellium is gum resin from the gugul tree (Balsamodendron mukul) grown in western India and Pakistan which is very closely related to myrrh (Balsamodendron myrrha) (Casson 1989: 185; Warmington 1928: 201). 122 Nard corresponds to Sanskrit nalada (Nardostachys jatamansi), a plant belong- ing to the Valerian class used for making expensive fragrant oils (Rawlinson 1916: 126;
  11. Marshall, John H. and Jean-Philippe Vogel 1904. "Excavations at Charsada."Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of India for the Year 1902-1903. Calcutta: Super- intendent of Government Printing, 141-184 report on earlier excavations and Taj Ali, et al. 1997-1998. "Preliminary Report of Two Seasons of Archaeological Excavations at the Bala Hissar of Charsadda, NWFP, Pakistan." Ancient Pakistan 12, 1-34 reports on more recent excavations. Also see comments by Foucher, Alfred. 1901. "Notes sur la géographie ancienne du Gandhâra." Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient 1, 331-340;
  12. Foucher 1931. "De Kāpiśi à Pushkarāvatī." Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies 6.2, 341-8; and Foucher 1942: 1.41-5, 1.155-158 for geographical and histori- cal comments. Settlement at the neighboring site of Shaikhān D herī can be dated to the Indo-Greek period beginning in the third and second centuries BCE on the basis of coins of Indo-Greek rulers and classical double-moulded terracotta figures (Callieri 1995: 299-300;
  13. See Chapter 1: Buddhist Inscriptions: Epigraphic Markers of Transmission, pp. 48-54, especially note 53, for relevant information about Kharos t hī inscriptions, as well as references to important publications by Fussman 1989a and Konow 1929. Fussman 1987a discusses the implications of dated Kharos t hī inscriptions for a rela- tive chronology of Gandhāran art. Glass analyzes the dating formulae of Kharos t hī inscriptions, which "provide the bedrock upon which much of the early history of Gandhāra is built" (2007b: 76). 32 Dietz 2007: 62, depending on Fussman 1994a: 20-21 refers to Buddhist schools in Kharos t hī inscriptions, which can be correlated with the CKI database with refer- ence to findspots (if known) in order of numerical citations: 8 Sarvāstivādins (CKI 48: Mathura, 145: Peshawar Shah-ji-ki Dheri, 148: Zeda, 153: Kurram, 165: Tor Dherai, 161: Taxila Kalawan, 223: Had d a, 361: British Library pot), 5 Kāśyapīyas (CKI 66, 223: Taxila, 67: Bedadi, 127: Palatu Dheri, 257: Śatruleka reliquary), 3 Dharmaguptakas (CKI 116: Jamalgarhi, 182: Qunduz, 362: British Library pot), 2 Mahāsān ghikas (CKI 48: Mathura, 159: Wardak), and 1 Mahīśāsaka (CKI 331: Priavaśa requary). For epi- graphic references to Buddhist schools elsewhere in India, see Bareau, André. 1955.
  14. Cribb 2008 in Luczanits 2008: 64-69, 122-125; MacDowall 2007b. 34 Gāndhārī manuscripts are introduced in Chapter 1: Panorama of Buddhist Lit- erature, pp. 41-48, especially note 126. The most recent overview of new finds is published by Allon, Mark. 2008. "Recent Discoveries of Buddhist Manuscripts from Afghanistan and Pakistan and their Significance." In Art, Architecture and Religion Along the Silk Roads, ed. Ken Parry. Turnhout: Brepols, 153-178. Comparisons of the manuscript collections by Strauch 2008: 112-115 are especially helpful. 35 Brough 1962. Jason Neelis -978-90-04-19458-8 Downloaded from Brill.com07/16/2023 08:58:16AM via free access
  15. Meunié, J. 1942. Shotorak. MDAFA 10. Paris: Les Éditions d'art et d'histoire; Ghirshman, Roman. 1946. Bégram: recherches archéologiques et his- toriques sur les Kouchans. MDAFA 12. Cairo: Institut français d'archéologie orien- tale. 55 Mehendale, Sanjyot. 1997. Begram: New Perspectives on the Ivory and Bone Car- vings. Berkeley, CA: University of California Ph.D. dissertation;
  16. Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1985. "The Sacred Rock of Hunza." Journal of Central Asia 8.2, 7. 10 Kazmi 1995: 287-8. 11 Kazmi 1995: 289; a crystal goose (hamsa) is "the symbol of the wandering soul and the promulgation of the Buddhist doctrine to all realms" (Errington 1998: 86).
  17. Minorsky, Vladimir; trans. 1937. Hudūd al-Ālam = "The regions of the world": a Persian geography, 372 AH-982 AD London: Luzac, 261, map iv. 61 Minorsky 1937: 369-70.
  18. Sachau, Carl Eduard, trans. 1888. Alberuni's India: An account of the religion, philosophy, literature, geography, chronology, astronomy, customs, laws, and astrology of India about AD 1030. 2 vols, London: Trübner.
  19. Fussman, Gérard. 1978. "Inscriptions de Gilgit." Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient 65: 1-64;
  20. Humbach, Helmut. 1980b. "Die Kharos t ī-Inschriften aus Gilgit." Münchener Studien zur Sprach- wissenschaft 39: 53-58. 82 Hinüber 2004: 58-59. For more details about the historical context of the Palola S āhis, refer to Palola S āhis of Gilgit: Élite Patrons in a Buddhist Enclave in the penul- timate subchapter of Chapter 2, pp. 171-177. Jason Neelis -978-90-04-19458-8 Downloaded from Brill.com07/16/2023 08:58:16AM via free access
  21. For Yuezhi migrations across Central Asia to South Asia under pressure from the Xiongnu, see Chapter 2: Dynamics of Mobility during the Kus ān a Period pp. 132-145, particularly Early Kus ān a Genealogy and Chronology. 7 Liu 1998: 4; Raschke 1978: 616;
  22. Hulsewé, Anthony A.F.P. 1974. "Quelques considérations sur le commerce de la soie au temps de la dynastie des Han." In Mélanges de sinologie offerts à Monsieur Paul Demiéville. Paris: Presses universitaires de France, vol. 2, 123; Raschke 1978: 616, fn. 166. 9 Hulsewé 1974: 123-4; Rhie 1999: 9-10. 10 Rhie 1999: 10, quoting Cambridge History of China [1986] I, 411, 413. 11 Raschke 1978: 618-9; Rhie 1999: 11-12. Jason Neelis -978-90-04-19458-8 Downloaded from Brill.com07/16/2023 08:58:16AM via free access
  23. MacDowall, David W. 1985. "Numismatic Links Across the Kara- korum." Journal of Central Asia 8.2, 153-157. 18 MacDowall's conclusion that a "northern route" for the establishment of Indo- Scythian and Kus ān a empires is demonstrated by the names of Maues, Gondophares, and Kus ān a rulers in Kharos t hī inscriptions from the Northern Areas is based on unreliable identifications of these names by Dani 1985. The association between Kanis ka and Khotan in later literary sources can not be confirmed. Jason Neelis -978-90-04-19458-8 Downloaded from Brill.com07/16/2023 08:58:16AM via free access 223-230, figs. 1-2; Härtel and Yaldiz 1982: 61-62; Rhie 1999: 265-66, figs. 4.6a-b, 270-1, fig. 4.9. 24 Rhie 1999: 276, fig. 4.15c. 25 Boyer, et al. 1920-29 edited 758 Kharos t hī documents discovered by Aurel Stein, and many are translated by Burrow, T. 1940. A translation of the Kharos t hi documents from Chinese Turkestan. London: Royal Asiatic Society. Additional discoveries may increase the number of published and unpublished Kharos t hī documents from the southern Tarim Basin to about 1000 (Rhie 1999: 338; Lin 1996 and Salomon 1998a: 159-60 refer to recent publications). Short Kharos t hī inscriptions are also written on the wall paintings at Miran (Boyer, A.M. 1911. "Inscriptions de Miran." Journal Jason Neelis -978-90-04-19458-8 Downloaded from Brill.com07/16/2023 08:58:16AM via free access Asiatique 17 (n.s. 10), 413-430, Stein 1921: 1.529-31) and on silk fragments from Miran and Lou-lan (Konow, Sten. 1939. "Notes on the Inscription on the Silk-Strip No. 34:65." In Bergman, Folke. 1939. Archaeological Researches in Sinkiang, especially the Lop-Nor Region. Stockholm: Bokförlags Aktiebolaget Thule, 231-234; Salomon 1998a: 132, Stein 1921: 1.495). 26 Brough 1965: 604;
  24. Lin 1996. Various propositions for the chronological range of the eastern Central Asian Kharos t hī documents are listed by Rhie (1999: 338, fn. 28), from 235/6 to ca. 321 CE promoted by Brough (1965) to alternative dates from 175-359 advocated by Lin based on a new discovery of a Kharos t hī document with a regnal date of the Shan-shan ruler Sulika (ibid., 343 ff.). 27 Salomon 2008b. 28 Salomon, Richard. 1999b (but 2002). "A Stone Inscription in Central Asian Gāndhārī from Endere (Xinjiang)." Bulletin of the Asia Institute 13, 1-13.
  25. Bromberg, Carol Altman. 1991. "An Iranian Gesture at Miran." Bulletin of the Asia Institute 5, 45-58; Rhie 1999: 385. 30 Rhie 1999: 385. 35 The Inquiry of Vimalaprabhā is translated by Thomas 1935: 137-258 and com- mented upon by Uray 1979: 288-289 (also briefly discussed in Chapter 3, subchapter: Northern Route (Uttarāpatha) p. 196, fn. 34; Jettmar 1975: 299-312; and Jettmar 1993: 107-109. The conflict between Tibetan forces and China for control of Skardu in the eighth century is attested in Tibetan Annals covering the years 721-760 CE (Uray 1979: 282-3;
  26. Beckwith 1987). The ramifications of this conflict for the upper Indus region of northern Pakistan are treated in Chapter 2, subchapter: Palola S āhis. 36 Rhie 1999: 392.
  27. Abe, Stanley. 2005. Ordinary Images. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  28. Ali, Daud. 2004. Courtly Culture and Political Life in Early Medieval India. Cambridge studies in Indian history and society, 10. Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press.
  29. Allchin, F. Raymond. 1995. The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The emer- gence of cities and states. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
  30. Allchin, F. Raymond, and Bridget Allchin, eds. 1997. South Asian Archaeology, 1995. New Delhi: Published for the Ancient India and Iran Trust, Cambridge by Science Publishers, U.S.A. and Oxford & IBH.
  31. Allon, Mark. 2001. Three Gāndhārī Ekottarīkāgama-type sutras: British Library Kharos t hī fragments 12 and 14. Gandhāran Buddhist Texts 2. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
  32. --. 2007. Introduction: The Senior Manuscripts. In Andrew Glass, Four Gāndhārī Sam yuktāgama sutras: Senior Kharos t hī fragment 5, 3-25. Gandhāran Buddhist Texts 4. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
  33. Almond, Philip C. 1988. The British Discovery of Buddhism. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
  34. Alram, Michael. 2003 (2007). Three Hunnic Bullae from Northwest India. Bulletin of the Asia Institute 17: 177-184.
  35. Appadurai, Arjun, ed. 1986. The Social Life of Things: Commodities in cultural perspec- tive. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
  36. Bailey, Greg, and Ian W. Mabbett. 2003. The Sociology of Early Buddhism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  37. --. 1946. Gāndhārī. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 11.4: 764- 797.
  38. --. 1978. Two Kharos t hī casket inscriptions from Avaca. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society: 3-13.
  39. --. 1980. A Kharos t rī Inscription of Sen avarma, King of Od i. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society: 21-29.
  40. Barrett, Timothy. 2005. History. In Critical Terms for the Study of Buddhism, ed. Don- ald S. Lopez, 124-142. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  41. --. 2000. The Hadda Excavations. Trans. Bruce L. Miller, Nilofaur Moaven Fatemi, and Azizeh Azodi. Memoirs of the French Archaeological delegation in Afghani- stan, 4. Bangkok: SDI Publications.
  42. Basham, A.L. 1979. Sam bodhi in Aśoka's 8th Rock Edict. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 2: 81-83.
  43. Basilov, Vladimir N., ed. 1989. Nomads of Eurasia. Los Angeles, Calif.; Seattle, Wash.: Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County; Distributed by University of Washington Press.
  44. Beal, Samuel, trans. 1884. Si-yu-ki. Buddhist Records of the Western World. Trübner's oriental series. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner.
  45. Beckwith, Christopher I. 1987. The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A history of the struggle for great power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese during the early Middle Ages. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
  46. --. 2007. The Art of Gandhāra in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York; New Haven: Metropolitan Museum of Art; Yale University Press.
  47. Behrendt, Kurt A., and Pia Brancaccio, eds. 2006. Gandhāran Buddhism: Archaeology, art, and texts. Asian Religions and Society series. Vancouver: UBC Press.
  48. Donald S. Lopez, 77-102. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  49. Bentor, Yael. 1995. On the Indian Origins of the Tibetan Practice of Depositing Rel- ics and Dhâran îs in Stûpas and Images. Journal of the American Oriental Society 115.2: 248-261.
  50. Berkwitz, Stephen C., Juliane Schober, and Claudia Brown, eds. 2009. Buddhist Man- uscript Cultures: Knowledge, ritual, and art. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge.
  51. Bernard, Paul. 1967. Aï Khanum on the Oxus: A Hellenistic city in central Asia. Albert Reckitt archaeological lecture 1967. London: Oxford University Press.
  52. --. 1994a. The Seleucids in Central Asia. In History of Civilizations of Central Asia, ed. János Harmatta, vol. 2: 88-97. Paris: Unesco.
  53. --. 1994b. The Greek Kingdoms of Central Asia. In History of Civilizations of Cen- tral Asia, ed. János Harmatta, vol. 2: 98-129. Paris: UNESCO.
  54. Bernard, Paul, Georges-Jean Pinault, and Georges Rougemont. 2004. Deux nouvelles inscriptions grecques de l'Asie centrale. Journal des savants: 227-356.
  55. Biruni, Muhammad ibn Ahmad Abu al-Rihan al-. 1888. Alberuni's India: An account of the religion, philosophy, literature, geography, chronology, astronomy, customs, laws and astrology of India about A.D. 1030. Trans. Carl Eduard Sachau. London: Trübner.
  56. --. 1989. The Book most Comprehensive in Knowledge on Precious Stones: Al-Beruni's book on mineralogy. Trans. Hakim Muhammad Sa`id. One hundred great books of Islamic civilisation 66. Islamabad: Pakistan Hijra Council.
  57. Bivar, A.D.H. 1984. Maues at Taxila: Problems of his Arrival-Route and Political Alle- giance. Journal of Central Asia 7.1: 5-15.
  58. Blaut, James M. 1993. The Colonizer's Model of the World: Geographical diffusionism and Eurocentric history. New York: Guilford Press.
  59. Bloch, Marc L. 1939-1949. La société féodale. 2 vols. Paris: A. Michel. --. 1961. Feudal society. Trans. L.A. Manyon. 2 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  60. Bodhi, Bhikkhu, trans. 2000. The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A new transla- tion of the Samyutta Nikāya. Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications.
  61. Boucher, Daniel. 1991. The Pratītyasamutpāda and Its Role in the Medieval Cult of the Relics. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 14: 1-27.
  62. --. 1998. Gāndhārī and the Early Chinese Buddhist Translations Reconsidered: The Case of the Saddharmapun d arīkasūtra. Journal of the American Oriental Society 118.4: 471-506.
  63. Boyer, Auguste M. 1911. Inscriptions de Miran. Journal Asiatique 17: 413-430.
  64. Boyer, Auguste M., E.J. Rapson, E. Senart, and Peter Scott Noble. 1920-1929. Kharos t hī Inscriptions discovered by Sir Aurel Stein in Chinese Turkestan. 3 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  65. Bromberg, Carol A. 1991. An Iranian Gesture at Miran. Bulletin of the Asia Institute 5: 45-58.
  66. Bronkhorst, Johannes. 2004. Hinduism and Buddhism. In Encyclopedia of Buddhism, ed. Robert Buswell, vol. 1: 328-332. New York: Macmillan Reference, USA.
  67. Brough, John. 1954. The Language of the Buddhist Sanskrit Texts. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 16.2: 351-375.
  68. --. 1962. The Gāndhārī Dharmapada. London Oriental Series 7. London; New York: Oxford University Press.
  69. Brown, Robert L. 1986. Recent Stūpa Literature: A Review Article. Journal of Asian History 20: 215-232.
  70. Richard H. Davis, 37-54. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press.
  71. --. 2006. The Nature and Use of the Bodily Relics of the Buddha in Gandhāra. In Gandhāran Buddhism: Archaeology, art, and texts, ed. Kurt Behrendt and Pia Bran- caccio, 182-209. Vancouver: UBC Press.
  72. Buffler, Eléonore. Forthcoming. Spreading of some Buddhist Architectural Designs between Afghanistan and China: The Case of the Cruciform Stupa. Buddhism Across Asia conference paper, presented in Singapore, February 2009.
  73. Buitenen, J.A.B. van, trans. 1973. The Mahābhārata. 3 vols. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  74. Burgess, James, and Bhagvanlal Indraji. 1881. Inscriptions from the Cave Temples of Western India. Archaeological survey of western India Reports, Old Series 10. Bom- bay: Government Central Press.
  75. --. 1985. Greek Religion. Trans. John Raffan. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
  76. --. 2010. Introduction to the history of Indian Buddhism. Trans. Katia Buffetrille and Donald S. Lopez, Jr. Buddhism and Modernity. Chicago; London: University of Chicago Press.
  77. Burrow, T. 1937. The Language of the Kharos t hī Documents from Chinese Turkestan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  78. Buswell, Robert E., and Robert M. Gimello, eds. 1992. Paths to Liberation: The Mārga and its transformations in Buddhist thought. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
  79. Kurt Behrendt and Pia Brancaccio, 60-82. Vancouver: UBC Press.
  80. Cardona, George, and Dhanesh Jain, eds. 2003. The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge Language Family series. London; New York: Routledge.
  81. --. 1989. The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text with introduction, translation, and com- mentary. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
  82. Chakrabarti, Dilip K. 1995. The Archaeology of Ancient Indian Cities. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
  83. --. 2008. Three Copper Plates of the Sixth Century AD: Glimpses of Socio-Eco- nomic and Cultural Life in Western India. In South Asian Archaeology 1999, ed. Ellen Raven, 395-399. Gonda Indological Studies 15. Groningen: E. Forsten. Chakravarti, Uma. 1987. The Social Dimensions of Early Buddhism. Delhi; New York: Oxford University Press.
  84. Chalmers, Robert, trans. 1895. The Jātaka or stories of the Buddha's former births. 6 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  85. Charlesworth, Martin Percival. 1926. Trade-Routes and Commerce of the Roman Empire: With notes on the agricultural resources, mineral wealth, of each province. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  86. Chattopadhyaya, Brajadulal. 1988-1989. Trends of Research on Ancient Indian Eco- nomic History. Journal of Ancient Indian History 18: 109-131.
  87. --. 1994. The Making of Early Medieval India. Delhi; New York: Oxford University Press.
  88. Chavannes, Édouard, trans. 1903. Voyage de Song Yun dans l'Udyana et le Gandhara (518-522 p.C). Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient 3: 379-440.
  89. Christian, David, and Craig Benjamin, eds. 2000. Realms of the Silk Roads, Ancient and Modern. Proceedings from the Third Conference of the Australasian Society for Inner Asian Studies (A.S.I.A.S.), Macquarie University, September 18-20, 1998. Silk Road Studies 4. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols.
  90. Cohen, Richard S. 2006. Ajanta's Inscriptions. In Walter Spink, Ajanta: history and development, vol. 2: 273-339. Handbuch der Orientalistik, Section 2, India 18. Leiden; Boston: Brill.
  91. Cooke, Miriam, and Bruce B. Lawrence, eds. 2005. Muslim Networks from Hajj to Hip Hop. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
  92. Coomaraswamy, Ananda Kentish. 1927. The Origin of the Buddha Image. The Art Bulletin 11: 287-329.
  93. Cowell, Edward B., and Robert Alexander Neil, eds. 1886. The Divyâvadâna, a collec- tion of early Buddhist legends. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  94. Curtin, Philip D. 1984. Cross-cultural Trade in World History. Studies in comparative world history. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
  95. Czuma, Stanislaw J., and Rekha Morris. 1985. Kushan Sculpture: Images from early India. Cleveland, Ohio: Cleveland Museum of Art in cooperation with Indiana Uni- versity Press.
  96. Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1963. Indian Palaeography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 2nd rev. ed. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal.
  97. --. 1985. Sacred Rock of Hunza. Journal of Central Asia 8.2: 5-124.
  98. --. 1998. Origin of the Dardic Culture: A new discovery in the Northern Areas of Pakistan. Journal of Central Asia 21.1: 153-185.
  99. Dani, Ahmad Hasan, and Boris A. Litvinsky. 1996. The Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom. In History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Crossroads of Civilizations A.D. 250 to 750, ed. Boris A. Litvinsky, vol. 3: 103-118. Paris: UNESCO.
  100. Daniels, Peter T., and William Bright, eds. 1996. The World's Writing Systems. New York: Oxford University Press.
  101. Davidson, Ronald M. 2002. Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A social history of the Tantric movement. New York: Columbia University Press.
  102. Davis, Richard H., ed. 1998. Images, Miracles, and Authority in Asian Religious Tradi- tions. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press.
  103. Deeg, Max. 2000. On the Localisation of Faxian's Kingdom of Jiecha. In South Asian Archaeology 1997, eds. Maurizio Taddei and Giuseppe De Marco, vol. 2: 877-888. Serie orientale Roma 90. Rome: Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente.
  104. Degener, Almuth. 2002. The Nuristani languages. Proceedings of the British Academy 116: 103-118.
  105. --. 1992. The Collective and Popular Basis of Early Buddhist Patronage: Sacred Monuments, 100 BC-AD 250. In The Powers of Art: Patronage in Indian Culture, ed. Barbara Stoler Miller, 35-45. Delhi; New York: Oxford University Press.
  106. Demiéville, Paul. 1924. Les versions chinoises du Milindapañha. Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême Orient 24: 1-264.
  107. Demoto Hahn, Mitsuyo. 2006. Fragments of the Avadānaśataka. In Buddhist manu- scripts, ed. Jens Braarvig, vol. 3: 207-244. Manuscripts in the Schøyen Collection 7. Oslo: Hermes Pub.
  108. Di Cosmo, Nicola. 2002. Ancient China and its Enemies: The rise of nomadic power in East Asian history. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
  109. Drewes, David. 2007. Revisiting the phrase 'sa pr thvīpradeśaś caityabhūto bhavet' and the Mahāyāna Cult of the Book. Indo-Iranian Journal 50: 101-143.
  110. Edgerton, Franklin. 1953. Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary. 2 vols. William Dwight Whitney linguistic series. New Haven: Yale University Press.
  111. Eggermont, P.H.L. 1966. The Murundas and the Ancient Trade-Route from Taxila to Ujjain. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 9.3: 257-296.
  112. Emirbayer, Mustafa, and Jeff Goodwin. 1994. Network Analysis, Culture, and the Problem of Agency. The American Journal of Sociology 99.6: 1411-1454.
  113. --. 1990. Taxila: Political History and Urban Structure. In South Asian Archaeol- ogy, 1987, eds. Maurizio Taddei and Pierfrancesco Callieri, vol. 2: 657-674. Rome: Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente.
  114. --. 1995. City States of North India and Pakistan at the Time of the Buddha. In The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia, ed. F. Raymond Allchin, 99-122. Cam- bridge: Cambridge University Press.
  115. Errington, Elizabeth. 1993. In search of Pa-lu-sha, a city of the central Gandhara plain. Bulletin of the Asia Institute 7: 55-66.
  116. Errington, Elizabeth, and Joe Cribb. 1992. The Crossroads of Asia: Transformation in image and symbol in the art of ancient Afghanistan and Pakistan. Cambridge: Ancient India and Iran Trust.
  117. Falk, Harry. 1993. Schrift im alten Indien: ein Forschungsbericht mit Anmerkungen. ScriptOralia, 56. Tübingen: G. Narr. --. 1997. The Purpose of R gvedic Ritual. In Inside the texts, beyond the texts: new approaches to the study of the Vedas, ed. Michael Witzel, 69-88. Harvard Oriental Series, Opera Minora 2. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Dept. of Sanskrit and Indian Studies.
  118. Falk, Nancy Auer. 1990. Exemplary Donors of the Pāli Tradition. In Ethics, Wealth, and Salvation: A study in Buddhist social ethics, eds. Russell F. Sizemore and Donald Swearer, 124-143. Studies in Comparative Religion. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press.
  119. Feer, Léon, trans. 1891. Avadâna-çataka: cent légendes bouddhiques: la centaine d'Avadânas, commençant par Pûrna (Pûrnamukha-avadâna-çataka): traduite du Sanskrit, avec une introduction analytique, notes linguistiques et explicatives et trois index. Annales du Musée Guimet. Bibliothèque de vulgarisation. Paris: E. Leroux.
  120. Fick, Richard. 1897. Die sociale gliederung im nordöstlichen Indien zu Buddha's zeit, mit besonderer berücksichtigung der kastenfrage, vornehmlich auf grund der Jâtaka dargestellt. Kiel: C.F. Haeseler. --. 1972. The Social Organisation in North-east India in Buddha's Time. Trans. Sisira- Kumara Maitra. Varanasi: Indological Book House.
  121. Fitzgerald, James L., trans. 2004. The Mahabharata. Vol. 7, Book 11, The book of women. Book 12, The book of peace, part one. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  122. Fleming, David. 1993. Where was Achaemenid India? Bulletin of the Asia Institute 7: 67-72.
  123. Foltz, Richard. 1999. Religions of the Silk Road: Overland trade and cultural exchange from antiquity to the fifteenth century. New York: St. Martin's Press.
  124. Foucher, Alfred. 1901. Notes sur la géographie ancienne du Gandhâra. Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient 1: 322-369.
  125. L'art gréco-bouddhique du Gandhâra; étude sur les origines de l'influence classique dans l'art bouddhique de l'Inde et de l'Extrême-Orient. 3 vols. Publications de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient, 5-6. Paris: E. Leroux. --. 1915. Notes on the Ancient Geography of Gandhāra: A commentary on a chapter of Hiuan Tsang. Trans. Harold Hargreaves. Calcutta: Superintendent of Govern- ment Printing, India.
  126. --. 1931. De Kāpiśi à Pushkarāvatī. Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies 6.2: 341-348.
  127. Frank, Andre Gunder. 1998. ReOrient: Global economy in the Asian Age. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  128. Friedrich-Silber, Ilana. 1995. Virtuosity, Charisma, and Social Order: A comparative sociological study of monasticism in Theravada Buddhism and medieval Catholicism. Cambridge cultural social studies. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
  129. Fussman, Gérard. 1978. Inscriptions de Gilgit. Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême- Orient 65: 1-64.
  130. --. 1980. Nouvelles inscriptions śaka: ère d'Eucratide, ère d'Azès, ère Vikrama, ère de Kaniska. Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient 67: 1-43.
  131. --. 1982. Documents épigraphiques kouchans (III): L'inscription Kharos t hī de Sena- varma, roi d'Od i: une nouvelle lecture. Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient 71: 1-46.
  132. --. 1984. Nouvelles inscriptions śaka II. Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Ori- ent 73: 31-46.
  133. --. 1985. Nouvelles inscriptions śaka (III-IV). Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême- Orient 74: 35-42, 47-51.
  134. --. 1986a. Documents épigraphiques kouchans IV: Ajitasena, père de Senavarma. Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient 75: 1-14.
  135. --. 1986b. Symbolisms of the Buddhist Stūpa. Journal of the International Associa- tion of Buddhist Studies 9.2: 37-53.
  136. --. 1987b. Central and Provincial Administration in Ancient India: The Problem of the Mauryan Empire. Indian Historical Review 14.1-2: 43-72.
  137. --. 1989c. Les inscriptions Kharos t hī de la plaine de Chilas. In Antiquities of Northern Pakistan: reports and studies, ed. Karl Jettmar, vol. 1: 1-40. Mainz: P. von Zabern. --. 1991. Le Périple et l'histoire politique de l'Inde. Journal Asiatique 279: 31-38.
  138. --. 1993a. L'Indo-grec Ménandre ou Paul Demiéville revisité. Journal Asiatique 231: 61-138.
  139. --. 1993b. Chilas, Hatun et les bronzes bouddhiques du Cachemire. In Antiquities of Northern Pakistan, ed. Karl Jettmar, vol. 2: 1-60. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern.
  140. --. 1994b. Une peinture sur pierre: Le triptyque au stūpa de Shatial. In Antiquities of Northern Pakistan, eds. Gérard Fussman and Karl Jettmar, vol. 3: 1-55. Mainz: P. von Zabern. --. 1996. Southern Bactria and Northern India before Islam: A Review of Archaeo- logical Reports. Journal of the American Oriental Society. 116.2: 243-259.
  141. --. 1998. L'inscription de Rabatak et l'origine de l'ère Śaka. Journal Asiatique 286: 571-651.
  142. --. 2004. Dans quel type de bâtiment furent trouvés les manuscrits de Gilgit? Journal Asiatique 292: 101-150.
  143. Gail, Adalbert J., Gerd J.R. Mevissen, and Britta Zehmke, eds. 1993. South Asian Archæology 1991: Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference of the Asso- ciation of South Asian Archæologists in Western Europe, held in Berlin, 1-5 July 1991. Stuttgart: F. Steiner. Gansser, Augusto. 1964. Geology of the Himalayas. London; New York: Interscience Publishers.
  144. Germano, David, and Kevin. Trainor, eds. 2004. Embodying the Dharma: Buddhist relic veneration in Asia. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press.
  145. --. 1995. Buddhism in Chinese Society: An economic history from the fifth to the tenth centuries. Trans. Franciscus Verellen. Studies in Asian Culture. New York: Columbia University Press.
  146. Ghose, Madhuvanti. 2003 (2007). The Impact of the Hun Invasions. Bulletin of the Asia Institute 17: 145-158.
  147. Ghulam Muhammad. 1905. Festivals and Folklore of Gilgit. Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. 1, Nr. 7. Calcutta: Asiatic Society. Reprint, Islamabad: National Institute of Folk Heritage, 1980.
  148. --. 2007a. Four Gāndhārī Samyuktāgama sutras: Senior Kharos t hī fragment 5. Gandhāran Buddhist Texts 4. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
  149. --. 1987. Die Buddha-Darstellungen in der Münzpragung der Kušān. In Orientalia Iosephi Tucci memoriae dicata, eds. Gherardo Gnoli and Lionello Lanciotti, vol. 2: 535-538. Serie orientale Roma 56. Rome: Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente.
  150. Godard, André, Y. Godard, Joseph Hackin, and Paul Pelliot. 1928. Les antiquités bouddhiques de Bamiyan. Mémoires de la délégation archéologique française en Afghanistan 2. Paris; Bruxelles: G. van Oest. Gokhale, Balkrishna Govind. 1977. The Merchant in Ancient India. Journal of the American Oriental Society 97.2: 125-130.
  151. Gombrich, Richard F. 2006. Theravāda Buddhism: A social history from ancient Benares to modern Colombo. 2nd ed. The Library of Religious Beliefs and Practices. London; New York: Routledge.
  152. Gombrich, Richard F., and Cristina A. Scherrer-Schaub, eds. 2008. Buddhist studies. Papers of the 12th World Sanskrit Conference, vol. 8. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
  153. Goudie, Andrew, and Kenneth Pye, eds. 1983. Chemical Sediments and Geomorphol- ogy: Precipitates and residua in the near-surface environment. London; New York: Academic Press.
  154. Granoff, Phyllis. 1998. Maitreya's Jewelled World: Some Remarks on Gems and Visions in Buddhist Texts. Journal of Indian Philosophy 26.4: 347-371.
  155. Grenet, Frantz. 2002. Regional interaction in Central Asia and Northwest India in the Kidarite and Hephthalite periods. Proceedings of the British Academy 116: 203-224.
  156. --. 2006. Nouvelles données sur la localisation des cinq yabghus des Yuezhi. Journal asiatique 294: 325-341.
  157. Gunawardana, Ranavira. 1979. Robe and Plough: Monasticism and economic inter- est in early medieval Sri Lanka. Tucson, Arizona: Association for Asian Studies by University of Arizona Press. Jason Neelis -978-90-04-19458-8 Downloaded from Brill.com07/16/2023 08:58:16AM via free access
  158. Hackin, Joseph, and Jean Carl. 1933. Nouvelles recherches archéologiques à Bamiyan. Mémoires de la Délégation archéologique française en Afghanistan 3. Paris: G. van Oest. Halbfass, Wilhelm. 1988. India and Europe: An essay in understanding. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press.
  159. Donald S. Lopez, 31-61. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  160. Hammond, Norman, ed. 1973. South Asian Archaeology: Papers from the First Inter- national Conference of South Asian Archaeologists held in the University of Cam- bridge. Park Ridge, N.J.: Noyes Press.
  161. Harmatta, János (with B.N. Puri, L. Lelekov, D.C. Sircar, and S. Humayun). 1994. Religions in the Kushan Empire. In History of Civilizations of Central Asia, vol. 2: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250, ed. János Harmatta, 313-330. Paris: UNESCO.
  162. Harrison, Paul. 2003. Relying on the dharma and not the person: Reflection on author- ity and Transmission in Buddhism and Buddhist Studies. Journal of the Interna- tional Association of Buddhist Studies 26.1: 9-24.
  163. Hartmann, Jens-Uwe. 2004. Buddhism along the Silk Road: On the Relationship between the Buddhist Sanskrit Texts from Northern Turkestan and those from Afghanistan. In Turfan Revisited: The first century of research into the arts and cul- tures of the Silk Road, ed. Desmond Durkin, 125-128. Monographien zur indischen Archäologie, Kunst und Philologie 17. Berlin: D. Reimer. --. 2009. From Words to Books: Indian Buddhist manuscripts in the first millen- nium CE. In Buddhist Manuscript Cultures: Knowledge, ritual, and art, ed. Stephen Berkwitz, et al. Routledge Critical Studies in Buddhism 52. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge.
  164. --. 2009. The Wider Archaeological Contexts of the Buddhist Stūpa Site of Bharhut. In Buddhist Stūpas in South Asia: Recent archaeological, art-historical, and histori- cal perspectives, eds. Jason Hawkes and Akira Shinada, 146-174. SOAS Studies on South Asia. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
  165. Hawkes, Jason, and Akira Shimada, eds. 2009. Buddhist Stūpas in South Asia: Recent archaeological, art-historical, and historical perspectives. SOAS Studies on South Asia. Delhi; Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  166. Heim, Maria. 2004. Theories of the Gift in South Asia: Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain reflec- tions on dāna. New York; London: Routledge.
  167. Kenneth A. R. Kennedy and Greg- ory L. Possehl, 121-137. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH : American Institute of Indian Studies.
  168. --. 1997. Gifts of Power: Lordship in an early Indian state. Delhi; New York: Oxford University Press.
  169. --. 2009. The Urban Context of Early Buddhist Monuments in South Asia. In Bud- dhist Stūpas in South Asia: Recent archaeological, art-historical, and historical per- spectives, eds. Jason Hawkes and Akira Shimada, 192-215. SOAS Studies on South Asia. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
  170. Helms, Mary W. 1988. Ulysses' Sail: An ethnographic odyssey of power, knowledge, and geographical distance. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
  171. --. 1993. Craft and the Kingly Ideal: Art, trade, and power. Austin: University of Texas Press. Herodotus. 1942. Persian Wars. Trans. George Rawlinson. New York: Random House.
  172. Hiltbeitel, Alf. 2005. Buddhism and the Mahābhārata: Boundary Dynamics in Textual Practice. In Boundaries, Dynamics and Construction of Traditions in South Asia, ed. Federico Squarcini, 107-131. Kykéion studi e testi, 3. Firenze, Italy; New Delhi, India: Firenze University Press and Munshiram Manoharlal.
  173. --. 1989a. Brāhmī Inscriptions on the History and Culture of the Upper Indus Val- ley. In Antiquities of Northern Pakistan: reports and studies, ed. Karl Jettmar, vol. 1: 41-71. Mainz: P. von Zabern. --. 1989b. Buddhistische Inschriften aus dem Tal des oberen Indus. In Antiquities of Northern Pakistan: reports and studies, ed. Karl Jettmar, vol. 1: 73-106. Mainz: P. von Zabern. --. 1989c. Origin and Varieties of Buddhist Sanskrit. In Dialectes dans les littératures indo-aryennes: actes du colloque international, ed. Colette Caillat, 341-367. Publica- tions de l'Institut de civilisation indienne, 55. Paris: Collège de France, Institut de civilisation indienne.
  174. --. 2006b. The Cultural Context of the Inscriptions from the Upper Indus. Paper for the 13th World Sanskrit Conference in Edinburgh, Scotland, July 2006.
  175. Hitch, Douglas. 1988. Kushan Tarim Domination. Central Asiatic Journal 32: 170- 192.
  176. --. 1999. Thundering Zeus: The making of Hellenistic Bactria. Hellenistic Culture and Society 32. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  177. Horner, I.B., trans. 1938-1966. The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-pitaka). Sacred Books of the Buddhists, vols. 10-11, 13-14, 20, 25. London: Published for the Pali Text Society by Luzac & Co.
  178. --. trans. 1963. Milinda's questions. 2 vols. Sacred books of the Buddhists, v. 22-23. London: Luzac.
  179. --. trans. 1974. Vimānavatthu: Stories of the mansions. Sacred Books of the Bud- dhists, v. 30. London; London, Boston: Pali Text Society; Distributed by Routledge & K. Paul.
  180. Huber, Édouard, trans. 1908. Sûtrâlamkâra. Paris: E. Leroux.
  181. Inden, Ronald B. 2000. Imperial Purān as: Kashmir as a Vais n ava Center of the Words. In Ronald B. Inden, Jonathan S. Walters, and Daud Ali, Querying the Medieval: Texts and the history of practices in South Asia, 29-98. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  182. Jakobsson, Jens. 2009. Who Founded the Indo-Greek Era of 186/5 BCE? Classical Quarterly 59.2: 505-510.
  183. Janes, Dominic. 1998. God and Gold in Late Antiquity. Cambridge; New York: Cam- bridge University Press.
  184. Jenkins, G.K. 1955. Indo-Scythic mints. Journal of the Numismatic Society of India 17: 1-26.
  185. Jenner, W.J.F. 1981. Memories of Loyang: Yang Hsüan-chih and the lost capital (493- 534). Oxford; New York: Clarendon Press; Oxford University Press.
  186. --. 1975. Die Religionen des Hindukusch. Die Religionen der Menschheit 4.1. Stutt- gart: W. Kohlhammer. --. 1979. Rock-carvings and Stray Finds in the Mountains of North Pakistan: Archaeology before Excavation. In South Asian Archaeology 1977, ed. Maurizio Taddei, vol. 2: 917-926. Naples: Istituto universitario orientale.
  187. --. 1987b. Hebrew Inscriptions in the Western Himalayas. In Orientalia Iosephi Tucci Memoriae Dicata, eds. Gherardo Gnoli and Lionello Lanciotti, vol. 2: 667- 670. Serie orientale Roma, v. 56. Rome: Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente.
  188. --. 1990. Exploration in Baltistan. In South Asian Archaeology 1987, eds. Maurizio Taddei and Pierfranceso Callieri, vol. 2: 801-813. Serie orientale Roma 66. Rome: Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente.
  189. --. 1993. The Pat olas, their Governors and their Successors. In Antiquities of North- ern Pakistan, ed. Karl Jettmar, vol. 2: 77-122. Mainz: P. von Zabern. --. 1994. Prähistorische Wanderrouten in den zentralasiatischen Hochgebirgen: Voraussetzungen und frühe Nachweise. Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik 19: 157-172.
  190. --. 2002. Beyond the Gorges of the Indus: Archaeology before excavation. Ed. Ellen Kattner. Karachi: Oxford University Press.
  191. Jettmar, Karl, and Klaus Sagaster with Loden Sherab Dagyab. 1993. Ein Tibetisches Heiligtum in Punyal. In Antiquities of Northern Pakistan, ed. Karl Jettmar, vol. 2: 123-139. Mainz: P. von Zabern.
  192. Jones, Horace Leonard, trans. 1917-1933. The Geography of Strabo. 8 vols. The Loeb Classical Library. London; New York: W. Heinemann; G.P. Putnam's sons.
  193. Jones, J.J., trans. 1949. The Mahāvastu. 3 vols. Sacred books of the Buddhists, 16, 18-19. London: Luzac.
  194. Kangle, R.P., ed. and trans. 1969. The Kaut iliya Arthaśāstra. 3 vols. University of Bombay studies, no. 1-2. Bombay: University of Bombay.
  195. Kapstein, Matthew. 2003. The Indian Literary Identity in Tibet. In Literary cultures in history: reconstructions from South Asia, ed. Sheldon Pollock, 747-802. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  196. Karlsson, Klemens. 2000. Face to Face with the Absent Buddha: The formation of Bud- dhist aniconic art. Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis, Historia Religionum 15. Uppsala, Sweden: Uppsala University Ph.D. dissertation.
  197. --. 1997b. Wooden Tables with Ivory Legs. In South Asian archaeology, 1995, eds. F. Raymon Allchin and Bridget Allchin, vol. 2: 557-562. New Delhi: Science Pub- lishers, U.S.A. and Oxford & IBH Pub. Co.
  198. Kaul Shastri, Madhusudan. 1939. Report on the Gilgit Excavation in 1938. Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society 30.1: 1-12. Jason Neelis -978-90-04-19458-8 Downloaded from Brill.com07/16/2023 08:58:16AM via free access
  199. Kern, Hendrik, trans. 1884. The Saddharma-pun d arīka or The Lotus of the True Law. The sacred books of the East, 21. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Reprint, New York, NY: Dover, 1963.
  200. Kieschnick, John. 2003. The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture. Bud- dhisms. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

200 of 415 shown

Authors
Neelis, J.
Corresponding author
Neelis, Jason
Venue
BRILL eBooks
Publisher
BRILL
Published
2011-01-01
DOI
10.1163/ej.9789004181595.i-372
OpenAlex
W4214876201
Cited by
145
References
267
Citations by year
2026: 5 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 38 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 2 · 2014: 1 · 2013: 2 · 2012: 4
FWCI
14.54
Type
book
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by-nc
Locations
  • BRILL eBooks (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • Directory of Open access Books (OAPEN Foundation) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • Directory of Open access Books (OAPEN Foundation) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
  • University of Florida
  • University of Washington
  • University of Cambridge
  • University of Warwick
  • University of Oxford
  • Rijksuniversiteit Groningen
  • École française d'Extrême-Orient
  • School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Religious studies › Indian and Buddhist Studies
  • Social Sciences › Anthropology › Eurasian Exchange Networks
  • Social Sciences › Anthropology › Global Maritime and Colonial Histories
Keywords
early Buddhism, Buddhist transmission, trade networks, religious mobility, ancient South Asia, Central Asia, religion and business

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review