Cited by 256Suicide and Self-Harm StudiesMental Health Treatment and AccessHomicide, Infanticide, and Child Abuse

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Ethnic and Sex Differences in Suicide Rates Relative to Major Depression in the United States

Oquendo, Maria A., Ellis, Steven P., Greenwald, Steven, Malone, Kevin M., Weissman, Myrna M., Mann, J. John·2001·American Journal of Psychiatry

DOI 10.1176/appi.ajp.158.10.1652

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Abstract

Objective Suicide rates differ between ethnic groups in the United States. Since suicide is commonly associated with a mood disorder, the authors compared suicide rates relative to depression rates in five ethnic groups in the United States. Method Rates of major depression were generated from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area study and the Hispanic Health and Nutrition Epidemiologic Survey. Sociodemographic effects were determined by examining depression rates for respondents who were separated or divorced, earning low incomes, or not working for pay. The survey data were analyzed with age and sex standardization to generate 1-year prevalence rates of major depression. The depression rates of the different ethnic groups were compared and were examined in relation to suicide rates. Results The 1-year prevalence rates of major depression were 3.6% for whites, 3.5% for blacks, 2.8% for Mexican Americans, 2.5% for Cuban Americans, and 6.9% for Puerto Ricans. Compared to the rate for whites, the rate of depression was significantly higher in Puerto Ricans and significantly lower in Mexican Americans. Relative to the depression rates, the annual suicide rates were higher for males than for females. Mexican American and Puerto Rican males had lower relative suicide rates than white males. Conclusions Identifying reasons for differences in suicide rates relative to depression among ethnic groups and between males and females may suggest interventions to reduce suicide rates. Some pos…

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“Our ﬁ ndings revealed no signi ﬁ cant gender differences in suicide attempt prevalence among UFE patients with major depressive disorder, which contrasts with previous international studies reporting higher attempt rates in females (9) and higher completion rates in males (67).”
Discovery of potential female-specific biomarkers for major depressive disorder by LC-MS-based metabolomics.
Wang, Y., Xu, D., Liu, X.-X., Cheng, M.-C., Huang, J.-S., Liu, D., Zhang, X., & Zhang, L.-H. (2024) · Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.jpba.2024.116572 · Cited by 4
Genome-wide linkage scan of major depressive disorder in two Dagestan genetic isolates
Bulayeva, K., Lencz, T., Glatt, S. J., Takumi, T., Gurgenova, F., & Bulayev, O. A. (2011) · Open Medicine · doi:10.2478/s11536-011-0071-8 · Cited by 4
“suggesting that suicidal behavior is a separate domain from psychosis and is connected with gender differences in socio-cultural roles [24], our results support that suicides in these isolates were mostly connected with MDD, insofar as all MDD affected cases are close genetic relatives of suicide completers.”
Result
Age matters: a narrative review and machine learning analysis on shared and separate multidimensional risk domains for early and late onset suicidal behavior
Galfalvy, H., Campbell, E., Wong, M. K., Gujral, S., Szücs, A., & Szántó, K. (2026) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-026-02336-y · Cited by 3
A national examination of suicidal ideation, planning, and attempts among United States adults: Differences by military veteran status, 2008–2019
Hoopsick, R. A., & Yockey, R. A. (2023) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2023.07.009 · Cited by 5
MARITAL MALADJUSTMENT AND DEPRESSION IN WOMEN: MEDIATING ROLE OF SELF-REPRESSION
Habibi, M., Mokhtar, S., Ghanbari, N., Nooripour, R., & Motabi, E. (2016) · doi:10.15303/rjeap.2016.v7i2.a2 · Cited by 3
Clinical features of emergency department patients with depression who had attempted to commit suicide by poisoning
Wee, J., Park, J. H., Choi, S., Woo, S., Lee, W., So, B., & Park, K. (2016) · Nigerian Journal of Clinical Practice · doi:10.4103/1119-3077.164329 · Cited by 3
“[20‐22] Accordingly, female make up a higher percentage not only of the MDD group, but also the non‐MDD group in this study.”
Epidemiological trends and determinants of suicide in Iran with insights into the COVID-19 period, 1980–2021
Hushmandi, K., Shahmirzalou, P., Ramazani, Y., Raesi, R., Ardaneh, M., Askarpour, H., & Daneshi, S. (2025) · Population Health Metrics · doi:10.1186/s12963-025-00416-7 · Cited by 2
Association Between Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy and Interval Neurocognitive Decline: An Analysis of the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos.
Ibarra, A. J., Butters, M., Catov, J., & Ackenbom, M. (2024) · Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1097/aog.0000000000005737 · Cited by 2
Deaths of Despair in Black and White
Aspholm, R. R., Aguilar, N., & Vil, C. R. S. (2024) · Advances in Social Work · doi:10.18060/27396 · Cited by 2
“…of adversity—and the existence of social institutions that provide support in the face of hardship may militate against suicidality among blacks and other people of color, whereas many whites lack both this disposition and access to such supports (Early & Akers, 1993; Oquendo et al., 2001).”
Background
Relationship between Social Networks, Support Patterns, and Health Problems among the General Hungarian Population during the Last Phase of the COVID-19 Pandemic
Győri, Á. (2024) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci13030161 · Cited by 3
Addressing Determinants of Paternal Subjective Well-Being Through Fatherhood Education
Turner, J. J., Bradford, K. P., & Higginbotham, B. (2021) · Journal of Men's Studies · doi:10.1177/10608265211035788 · Cited by 2
“Some research has found no significant differences in depression by race (Cummings et al., 2003), while other research found differences in depression between different racial groups, with Whites reporting slightly higher rates of depression than most minority groups (Oquendo et al., 2001).”
Result
Trajectories of Depression and Their Associations with Mortality in Older People in Korea over 12 Years
Lee, S., Choi, H. H., Kim, S. H., & Lee, J.-G. (2021) · Korean Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.15384/kjhp.2021.21.2.45 · Cited by 2
A study of gender differences in psychiatric patients with attempted suicide
Singh, H., Chandra, P., & Reddi, V. K. (2016) · Telangana Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.4103/2455-8559.314435 · Cited by 2
“In most Western countries, suicide rates are relatively higher in men as compared to women whereas attempted suicide rates were higher in women.([2,3,4,5,6,7,8]) The male: female suicide ratio is more than three times in developed countries like Australia, Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom, [9] while i…”
Background
The examination of gender differences in depression in connection with alexithymia, focusing on male depression
Almássy, Z., Baksa, N., Papp, G., & Szemán-Nagy, A. (2014) · Magyar Pszichológiai Szemle · doi:10.1556/mpszle.69.2014.2.2
Suicide: scientific overview and relevance for trauma care providers
Crandall, M. (2007) · Trauma · doi:10.1177/1460408607087605 · Cited by 2
“…suicide, as evidenced by extensive data from all age groups, both genders, wide socioeconomic strata, and nearly every ethnic and cultural group that has been studied (Oquendo et al., 2001; Kumar et al., 2006; Alcantara and Gone 2007; Bernal et al., 2007; March et al., 2007; Oquendo et al., 2007).”
Background
Acculturative Family Distancing, Religious Support, and Psychological Well-Being Among Young Adult Eastern European Immigrants in Western Washington
Lats, T. V., Kim, P. Y., & Diekema, D. A. (2016) · Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research · doi:10.24839/2164-8204.jn21.4.252 · Cited by 3
“…found that one-and-half and second generation immigrants have higher levels of psychopathology including anxiety, mood, impulse control, and substance use disorders than first generation immigrants (Breslau & Chang, 2006; Breslau et al., 2007; Harker, 2001; Oquendo et al., 2001; Peña et al., 2008).”
Background
Risk Factors for Psychological Distress and Uses of Religious Coping Among African Torture Survivors
Leaman, S. C., Gee, C. B., & Cogar, M. (2009) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e517292011-464 · Cited by 2
“, one year prevalence rates for major depression have been estimated to range from 2%-7% (Oquendo et al., 2001).”
Background
Understanding Latine disparities in nocturnal wakefulness as a suicide risk factor
Fernandez, F., Tubbs, A. S., Perlis, M. L., & Grandner, M. A. (2025) · Sleep Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.sleepe.2025.100117 · Cited by 1
“…for future research, we address two psychosocial determinants that may help explain why the increased suicide risk associated with nocturnal wakefulness is particularly pronounced among Latine adults [54], despite lower overall suicide rates in this population compared with White adults [63–66].”
Individual- and Family-Level Correlates of Socio-Emotional Functioning among African American Youth from Single-Mother Homes: A Compensatory Resilience Model
Sterrett-Hong, E., Kincaid, C., Hardaway, C. R., Adams, M. M., MacFarlane, M., & Jones, D. J. (2019) · Journal of Family Issues · doi:10.1177/0192513x19891461 · Cited by 5
“Despite earlier findings showing African Americans as a group, particularly adults, tend to display lower rates of depression than Caucasians (Breslau et al., 2006; Oquendo et al., 2001), recent literature has demonstrated that African American adolescents actually experience depression at higher rates than Caucasian…”
Result
Introduction
Saunders, E. F. H. (2017) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.17f11922
Barriers to Psychiatric Treatment for the Geriatric Patient: Cultural Issues
Colemon, Y., & Ahmed, I. (2008) · doi:10.3109/9781420053302-16 · Cited by 1
Maladaptive By-Product Hypothesis
Lents, N. H. (2019) · Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_3020-1 · Cited by 1
Assessing Suicidality with the Hispanic Adult
Alonzo, D. M. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-4412-1_10 · Cited by 1
A Test of the Perfectionism Social Disconnection Model among Ethnic Minority Youth
Arce, A. B. G., & Polo, A. J. (2016) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-016-0240-y · Cited by 19
Sex differences in animal models of complex disorders: Affective disorders, type 2 diabetes mellitus and essential hypertension
Abu-Moch, M., Azab, A. N., Yousef, M., & Agam, G. (2026) · Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2026.119356 · Cited by 1
Immigrants and Mental Health
Douki, S., & Spyridakis, E. (2024) · HAPSc Policy Briefs Series · doi:10.12681/hapscpbs.40779
Gender differences in clinical characteristics and influencing factors of suicide attempts in first-episode and drug-naïve major depressive disorder patients with comorbid metabolic syndrome
Sun, P., Huang, Y., Yu, H., Wu, X., Chen, J., Fang, Y., & Zhang, X. (2024) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-024-06256-3
“Another study found that male MDD patients had higher rates of completed suicide [61], but the rates for SAs of male MDD patients was lower than that of female patients [62].”
Result
Suicide-related mortality in cardiovascular disease in the United States from 1999 to 2019.
Agrons, K., Nambi, V., Salas, R., & Minhas, A. M. (2024) · Journal of the National Medical Association · doi:10.1016/j.jnma.2024.07.001
Psychological Characteristics of Patients in Depression with High Suicide Risk: Using MMPI-2-RF
Park, C., Kim, E., & Choi, J. (2020) · 신경정신의학 · doi:10.4306/jknpa.2020.59.3.268
A systematic review of the efficacy and tolerability of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in the treatment of Chinese patients with depressive disorders
Zhang, Y. (2012) · doi:10.18725/oparu-2719
“The WHO estimated that 3% of adults in the world are suffering from depression, yet prevalence estimates of depression differ among ethnic groups [95] and regions [11].”
Background
Promoting Social and Academic Wellness Among African American Adolescent Males
Ayanlaja, C. C., Polydore, C. L., & Beamon, D. A. (2020) · Advances in educational marketing, administration, and leadership book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-3331-4.ch005
“The dice are loaded”: Men’s Experiences of Help-Seeking for Female Perpetrated Domestic Abuse
Coupland, R. (2020) · UEL Research Repository (University of East London) · doi:10.15123/uel.88ww0
The Gender Matters
Pérez-Rodríguez, M. M., Gutierrez, A., & Welch, A. K. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-26282-6_31 · Cited by 1

Authors: Oquendo, M. A., Ellis, S. P., Greenwald, S., Malone, K. M., Weissman, M. M., & Mann, J. J.
Affiliations: New York State Psychiatric Institute (US)
ORCID: Ellis, Steven P.
Malone, Kevin M.
Weissman, Myrna M.
Mann, J. John
Venue: American Journal of Psychiatry
Publisher: American Psychiatric Association Publishing
Published: 2001-10
Volume: 158
Issue: 10
Pages: 1652-1658
ISSN: 0002-953X (ISSN-L)
1535-7228
DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.158.10.1652
OpenAlex: W2169695492
Cited by: 256
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 2 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 26 · 2015: 13 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 11
FWCI: 7.53
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: American Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (MH35636, MH46745, P01MH037592, MH37592, MH30906)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Suicide and Self-Harm Studies
Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Homicide, Infanticide, and Child Abuse
Keywords: suicide rates, major depressive disorder, ethnic differences, sex differences, Puerto Ricans, Mexican Americans, Cuban Americans, Hispanic Americans, African Americans, White Americans, sociodemographic factors, depression prevalence, suicide prevention
MeSH terms: Adult, Aged, Black or African American, Depressive Disorder, Ethnicity, Female, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Severity of Illness Index, Sex Factors, Suicide, United States, Prevalence, Mexican Americans, White People

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Ethnic and Sex Differences in Suicide Rates Relative to Major Depression in the United States

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