The DOI matches its Crossref record; 45 of the 45 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 10 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria.
Open accessAbstract
How should DSM criteria relate to the disorders they are designed to assess? To address this question empirically, the author examines how well DSM-5 symptomatic criteria for major depression capture the descriptions of clinical depression in the post-Kraepelin Western psychiatric tradition as described in textbooks published between 1900 and 1960. Eighteen symptoms and signs of depression were described, 10 of which are covered by the DSM criteria for major depression or melancholia. For two symptoms (mood and cognitive content), DSM criteria are considerably narrower than those described in the textbooks. Five symptoms and signs (changes in volition/motivation, slowing of speech, anxiety, other physical symptoms, and depersonalization/derealization) are not present in the DSM criteria. Compared with the DSM criteria, these authors gave greater emphasis to cognitive, physical, and psychomotor changes, and less to neurovegetative symptoms. These results suggest that important features of major depression are not captured by DSM criteria. This is unproblematic as long as DSM criteria are understood to index rather than constitute psychiatric disorders. However, since DSM-III, our field has moved toward a reification of DSM that implicitly assumes that psychiatric disorders are actually just the DSM criteria. That is, we have taken an index of something for the thing itself. For example, good diagnostic criteria should be succinct and require minimal inference, but some critical clinical phenomena are subtle, difficult to assess, and experienced in widely varying ways. This conceptual error has contributed to the impoverishment of psychopathology and has affected our research, clinical work, and teaching in some undesirable ways.
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31 Own result · 20 Own interpretation · 20 No basis given · 6 No full text of the sources · 2 Sources not found · 2 Not checked yet · 1 Supported
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In the paper
“Eighteen symptoms and signs of depression were described, 10 of which are covered by the DSM criteria for major depression or melancholia.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“For two symptoms (mood and cognitive content), DSM criteria are considerably narrower than those described in the textbooks.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Second, the descriptive literature placed greater relative emphasis on the cognitive and attitudinal changes associated with depression than do the DSM criteria, where these features constitute only one criterion, characterized solely by worthlessness and guilt.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Empirical Conclusions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
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In the paper
“However, none of the authors noted increased appetite and weight gain, which are also described in this DSM criterion.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Textbooks' Descriptions of Symptoms and Signs
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Fatigue, exhaustion, and feelings of being tired out, symptoms well captured by DSM criterion A6, were described by only eight authors.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Textbooks' Descriptions of Symptoms and Signs
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Sixth, consistent with recent work (30), these authors gave greater prominence to changes in psychomotor functioning, especially psychomotor retardation, than is our current practice.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Empirical Conclusions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [30] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Depression-related changes in volition and motivation were described by 15 authors and were typically distinguished both from the more physical feelings of fatigue and the difficulty in decision making.Most commonly, this was described as lack of initiative, loss of will, or inability to work.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Textbooks' Descriptions of Symptoms and Signs
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Of note, only one author described neurovegetative changes in sleep, appetite, or weight as a central symptom of depression.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Prominent Symptoms and Signs
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Third, second to mood changes, the most frequently noted key symptom of major depression was changes in cognitive Am J Psychiatry 173:8, August 2016 ajp.psychiatryonline.org773 functioning, typically characterized by difficulties in thinking and concentrating.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Empirical Conclusions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Mood disturbances in the course of major depression were described by all 19 textbook authors (Table 1).”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Textbooks' Descriptions of Symptoms and Signs
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 26
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Second, it does not explain the diminution in psychopathological expertise and interest since the advent of DSM-III (4).”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Potential Limitations
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [4] source
The Abstract says that since DSM-III’s publication in 1980, teaching careful clinical evaluation informed by psychopathology has steadily declined. The section ‘To improve communication between clinicians’ adds that classics in psychopathology are largely ignored and research in psychopathology is a dying enterprise. Together, these support the claimed diminution in expertise and interest. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Compared with the DSM criteria, these authors gave greater emphasis to cognitive, physical, and psychomotor changes, and less to neurovegetative symptoms.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Depression-associated depersonalization and derealization were noted in 12 of the textbooks.A number of descriptions were provided, including everything feeling changed or unreal, seeing the world through a mist, and perplexity.No DSM-5 criteria for major depression describe this kind of depressive symptomatology.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Textbooks' Descriptions of Symptoms and Signs
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“First, Lewis comments on all but two of the symptoms and signs that I developed from the textbook review, so there is a high degree of consilience between these two sources of information (Table 3).”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Lewis's Monograph
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [7] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Psychomotor changes were reported by all but one author, 12 of whom described only aspects of psychomotor retardation and six of whom also commented on agitation.These signs are well presented in DSM-5 criterion A5.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Textbooks' Descriptions of Symptoms and Signs
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Speech that was slow, hesitant, indistinct, and/ or monosyllabic was described by all but two authors.This symptom is not included in DSM-5.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Textbooks' Descriptions of Symptoms and Signs
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Various aspects of anxiety, including panic attacks and obsessive fears, were noted by 14 authors, but anxiety is not included in the DSM criteria for major depression.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Textbooks' Descriptions of Symptoms and Signs
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All three of these are well reflected in the DSM criteria for major depression.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Prominent Symptoms and Signs
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Compared with the DSM-5 criteria, Muncie's criteria included symptoms of depersonalization and derealization and gave greater emphasis to physiological symptoms and changes in facial expression and posture.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Criteria for Depression Proposed by Muncie
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [22] Muncie W, 1939 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The next most common central symptom, volitional changes, was noted by only 20% of these authors and is not described in DSM-5 criteria.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Prominent Symptoms and Signs
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Other physical symptoms and signs, noted by 17 authors, was the most difficult symptom category to summarize.Most commonly described were gastrointestinal complaints, but diminished libido, amenorrhea, and headaches were also often noted.Also frequently described were changes in facial expression and posture.These phenomena are not captured by any part of the A criterion in DSM-5 major depression.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Textbooks' Descriptions of Symptoms and Signs
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As seen in Table 4, ten of the 18 symptoms and signs were well described by the DSM A criteria for major depression and one by a criterion for melancholia.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Quantitative Analysis
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Poor appetite and weight loss were described by, respectively, 10 and nine textbook authors, consistent with DSM criterion A3.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Textbooks' Descriptions of Symptoms and Signs
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Eighth, nearly all authors commented on changes in the speech of depressed patients, most typically describing it as slow, low in volume, with long pauses.This sign is not in DSM-5.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Empirical Conclusions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Fifth, the textbook authors gave less importance to the neurovegetative features of depression-changes in sleep, appetite, and weight-than the DSM criteria do.No author noted them as key depressive symptoms.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Empirical Conclusions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, the nature of psychiatric practice changed during the 20th century, with outpatient care constituting a larger proportion of our work, especially after 1960.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Potential Limitations
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By the time DSM-III was published in 1980, the majority of depressed patients were being seen in ambulatory settings and were often more mildly ill.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Potential Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But many of our classical textbook authors believed that derealization was an important clinical feature of major depression.”
- Also stated in: § Illustrations of the Problems Associated With Our Category Mistake · plain
“Yet, senior clinicians of earlier generations thought it was a critical feature of the depressive syndrome that reflected their patients' lived experiences.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Illustrations of the Problems Associated With Our Category Mistake
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The 19 textbooks examined are representative of the Western post-Kraepelinian psychiatric tradition.
- Also stated in: § Illustrations of the Problems Associated With Our Category Mistake · plain
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the key major depression criteria A1 and A7, DSM-5 lists three and two descriptors, respectively.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Illustrations of the Problems Associated With Our Category Mistake
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most of our textbook writers considered anxiety to be a prominent and clinically important part of the presentation of major depression.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Illustrations of the Problems Associated With Our Category Mistake
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The 19 textbooks examined are representative of the Western post-Kraepelinian psychiatric tradition.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Many of the classical textbook writers were seeing severely depressed patients in hospitals.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Potential Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, it fails to recognize the degree to which many mental health clinicians have conflated clinical evaluation and assessment of DSM criteria in our clinical work, research, and teaching.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Potential Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But meeting the DSM criteria for major depression is not the same thing as having major depression.The DSM criteria do not constitute clinically significant depression.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Conceptual Issues With Our Current Approach to DSM Criteria
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Increased eating and weight gain were introduced into the Research Diagnostic Criteria (35) for major depression and carried over into all subsequent editions of DSM.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Empirical Conclusions
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [35] Spitzer RL, 1975
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This conceptual error has contributed to the impoverishment of psychopathology and has affected our research, clinical work, and teaching in some undesirable ways.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Third and most importantly, the critique does not address the underlying conceptual problems of diagnostic literalism and reification that arise directly from our category mistake of confusing our fallible diagnostic criteria with the categories they are designed to assess.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Potential Limitations
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, developers of diagnostic criteria are also appropriately concerned about specificity.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Illustrations of the Problems Associated With Our Category Mistake
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Many of us have become diagnostic literalists with respect to DSM, stymied by an excessive respect for own creation.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Consequences of Our Category Mistake
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That is, criteria need only to identify true cases with sufficient sensitivity and specificity, and not to reflect complete catalogs of important symptoms and signs.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But it is problematic when we focus our teaching, our clinical work, and our research solely around DSM criteria.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The presence of such validators helps illustrate the difference between indexing and constituting a disorder.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Consequences of Our Category Mistake
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By losing sight of the indexical function of our diagnostic criteria and confounding the criteria with the disorders themselves, we open the door to reification.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Consequences of Our Category Mistake
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Third, as noted above, the goals of those who develop diagnostic criteria are not the same as those of the textbook writers, with the former being much more concerned with brevity, reliability (and hence low inferential content), and specificity.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Potential Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We can understand why this did not make it into DSM: It is a subtle concept, time-consuming to evaluate, and perhaps of limited reliability.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Illustrations of the Problems Associated With Our Category Mistake
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“It is possible, although unlikely given modest symptomatic differences seen for depression in major depression as compared with bipolar illness (37), that some of the differences between the symptoms described and those listed in the DSM-5 criteria result from admixture of patients with bipolar illness.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Potential Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [37] source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“DSM criteria are imperfect approximations created by a very human process that, although scientifically informed, could not be claimed by any knowledgeable individual to be infallible.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Consequences of Our Category Mistake
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As illustrated by our textbook writers, these lists are too short to capture adequately the range of human experience of the mood state of depression and the range of self-derogatory/pessimistic depressive cognitions.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Illustrations of the Problems Associated With Our Category Mistake
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given our pride in our diagnosis and our lack of definitive validators, it is understandable that our field has had undergone a”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Consequences of Our Category Mistake
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A symptom could be quite clinically important, but if it is shared by many other syndromes, it would likely not make a good diagnostic criterion.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Illustrations of the Problems Associated With Our Category Mistake
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Third, to be practical, diagnostic criteria need to be succinct.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Illustrations of the Problems Associated With Our Category Mistake
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These criteria have been enshrined in our diagnostic algorithms and structured interviews, and are so often required by journal and grant reviewers that they approach the tokens of an orthodox faith.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Consequences of Our Category Mistake
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Textbooks are the best place to obtain expert opinion about the important symptoms and signs of depression.
“I focus initially on textbooks as the best place to obtain expert opinion about the important symptoms and signs of depression.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The 19 selected textbooks are representative of the post-Kraepelinian Western psychiatric tradition circa 1900-1960.
“In total, 19 textbooks, published from 1899 to 1956 from five countries (nine from the United States, seven from the United Kingdom, and one each from Germany, France, and Switzerland), met inclusion criteria.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The textbook descriptions and Lewis's cases accurately reflect the phenomenology of depressive illness or major depression.
“I next review the phenomenology of depression described by Aubrey Lewis in what is the most detailed survey of the phenomenology of depression written in the 20th century (7).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Lewis's monograph is the most detailed survey of the phenomenology of depression written in the 20th century.
“I next review the phenomenology of depression described by Aubrey Lewis in what is the most detailed survey of the phenomenology of depression written in the 20th century (7).”
The paper relies on this without support.
The 19 textbooks examined are representative of the Western post-Kraepelinian psychiatric tradition.
“The DSM symptomatic criteria for major depression do a reasonable but incomplete job of assessing the prominent clinical symptoms and signs of depressive illness as described in the Western post-Kraepelinian psychiatric tradition.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Abstract
“Eighteen symptoms and signs of depression were described, 10 of which are covered by the DSM criteria for major depression or melancholia.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Quantitative Analysis
“ten of the 18 symptoms and signs were well described by the DSM A criteria for major depression and one by a criterion for melancholia.”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > CONCLUSIONS
“| Dana, 1907 (11) | Mental |”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > References
“11. Dana CL: Text-Book of Nervous Diseases and Psychiatry: For the Use of Students and Practitioners of Medicine, 6th rev and enlarged ed. New York, William Wood, 1904”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Prominent Symptoms and Signs
“Of note, only one author described neurovegetative changes in sleep, appetite, or weight as a central symptom of depression.”
§ The Phenomenology of Major Depression and the Representativeness and Nature of DSM Criteria > Empirical Conclusions
“No author noted them as key depressive symptoms.”
Citations
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The dimensionality of proposed DSM-5 PTSD symptoms in trauma-exposed young childrenPreprint
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The Case of the Many Messiahs: Narrative Competence and Religious Symptoms
Butchart, L. C. (2023) · Academic Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s40596-023-01818-1
“This kind of work raises the uncom-fortable nosological point that the diagnostic paradigm we inhabit is phenomenologically descriptive—not constitu-tive—and necessarily in flux; we could be fundamentally misunderstanding the spectrum of human experience [2].”
Biromo, A. R., Novendy, N., Lonan, G. A. D., et al. (2023) · MAHESA Malahayati Health Student Journal · doi:10.33024/mahesa.v3i7.10620
The Benefits of Probiotics on Depression: A Systematic Mini-Review
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Joseph Guislain's writings on melancholia from 1835 and 1852
Kendler, K. S., & Justis, V. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.01.195
Self-citationBreeksema, J. J. (2024) · University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) · doi:10.33612/diss.912040905
Intersubjectivity and psychiatric diagnosis
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Must depression be irrational?
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“But it does seem to me that current psychiatry gives mixed support for that view at best, and on two fronts.”
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“The updated consensus about the variable presentation of youth depression necessitates a measure that focuses on a broader conceptualization of depression that is not limited by diagnostic nuances (Kendler, 2016).”
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“These can manifest as sadness, a lack of interest, feelings of hopelessness, or anxiety (Paykel, 2008; Kendler, 2016).”
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“This suggests that MDD may be perceived as a core aspect of the self, potentially due to its pervasive impact on mood and daily functioning (Kendler 2016), often leading to a profound alteration in self‐concept and daily life.”
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“In contrast to mania, there is less overall consistency between the description of depression by authors of classical texts and the clinical features of current diagnostic criteria [48].”
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Sayfitdinkhuzhaev, Z. F., Жукова, Н. Г., Nasyrova, R. F., Gaponova, O. V., Zhukova, I. A., Masenko, A. Y., & Baydanova, A. N. (2026) · S S Korsakov Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry · doi:10.17116/jnevro20261260117 · Cited by 2
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Differential diagnosis of idiopathic psychomotor psychoses. II — Modernity
Snedkov, E. V., Lemeshev, I. V., & Koliada, A. A. (2026) · V M BEKHTEREV REVIEW OF PSYCHIATRY AND MEDICAL PSYCHOLOGY · doi:10.31363/2313-7053-2026-1-1106
"Be like water" : the adjustment practices of Tibetan immigrants to Paris
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Overview of Dimensional Perspectives on Psychopathology
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Introduction to Zachar’s “Versions of Disorders We Aspire to Explain”
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Self-citationKendler, K. S., Parnas, J., & Zachar, P. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009390620.046
Self-citationBasic Self-disorders Across Psychiatric Diagnoses and Risk Syndromes: An Updated Meta-analysis
Estradé, A., La‐Torraca‐Vittori, P., Esposito, C. M., Carranza-Navarro, F., Revilla-Zúñiga, J. A., Basadonne, I., Floris, V., Bonoldi, I., Damiani, S., Oliver, D., et al. (2026) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbag047 · Cited by 2
“99 ,100 From this perspective, the comparisons of EASE-defined BSD across diagnostic groups may partly reflect variability within diagnostic categories, rather than purely between them.”
Key challenges in advancing research on depression phenotyping
Repple, J., Chevance, A., Fried, E. I., Elsaeßer, M., Hahn, T., Ruhé, H. G., Opel, N., Bockting, C., McIntyre, R. S., Young, A. H., et al. (2026) · Nature Mental Health · doi:10.1038/s44220-026-00629-1 · Cited by 1
“…emphasis on the core mood domains (anhedonia and depressed mood), as these have demonstrated high centrality in depression network analyses 64–66 , have shown the closest link to psychosocial functioning 67 and have been somewhat underappreciated since the onset of DSM as discussed above 17 .”
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“As shown by Kendler [32], extensive atrophy in the circuits of the basal ganglia projecting to the inferior frontal lobe leads to the development of depressive disorders in PD.”
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Emotionally engaged speech reveals acoustic markers of depression and suicide risk
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Réflexions sur les classifications DSM
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Metadata
- Authors
- Kendler, K. S.
- Affiliations
- Virginia Commonwealth University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kendler, Kenneth S.
- ORCID
- Kendler, Kenneth S.
- Venue
- American Journal of Psychiatry
- Published
- 2016-08-01
- Volume
- 173
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 771-780
- ISSN
- 0002-953X (ISSN-L)
- 1535-7228
- OpenAlex
- W2346168897
- Cited by
- 255
- References
- 42
- Citations by year
- 2026: 25 · 2025: 32 · 2024: 32 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 27 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 27 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 5
- FWCI
- 153.04
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- American Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Mental Health and Psychiatry
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Treatment of Major Depression
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychology and Mental Health
- Keywords
- major depressive disorder, DSM-5 diagnostic criteria, melancholia, history of psychiatry, psychomotor symptoms, neurovegetative symptoms, depersonalization/derealization
- MeSH terms
- Attitude of Health Personnel, Curriculum, Major Depressive Disorder, Diagnosis, Differential, Education, Medical, Humans, Psychopathology, Research, Textbooks as Topic, United States, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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