Measuring Whiteness: A Systematic Review of Instruments and Call to Action
Abstract
The psychological study of Whiteness provides one avenue for researchers to help combat racial injustice in the United States. This article is a call to action for counseling psychologists to engage in much needed scholarship and critical examinations of Whiteness. In this systematic review and content analysis, we provide an overview of 18 quantitative measures focusing on various aspects of Whiteness published between 1967 and 2017. We summarize the constructs and psychometric properties of these measures. Our content analysis indicated that constructs assessed by Whiteness measures have shifted in focus over time across four themes: (a) Attitudes Toward Black People/Integration, (b) Modern Racism, (c) White Racial Identity, and (d) White Privilege and Antiracism. We conclude with suggestions on how advancement, development, and use of Whiteness measures could further our knowledge through research examining present-day racial justice issues. The issues highlighted include police brutality, xenophobia, immigration, White supremacy, activism, and training in the field.
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Additional frameworks assessing whiteness have been put forth, including models focusing on white racial consciousness, white identity centrality, white guilt, and the psychosocial costs of racism to whites.
“Additional frameworks assessing whiteness have been put forth (for reviews, see Hays et al., 2021; Schooley et al., 2019), including models focusing on white racial consciousness (Rowe et al., 1994), white identity centrality (Knowles & Peng, 2005), white guilt (Grzanka et al., 2020), and the psychosocial costs of racism to whites (Spanierman & Heppner, 2004).”
From Studying Ethnic-Racial Identity among White Youth: White Supremacy as a Developmental Context (2022) · cites this paper as Schooley et al., 2019
Counseling psychology offers a wealth of research on whiteness, which can be drawn on to expand developmental theory in this area.
“Counseling psychology, in particular, offers a wealth of research on whiteness, which can be drawn on to expand developmental theory in this area (Grzanka et al., 2020; Schooley et al., 2019).”
From Studying Ethnic-Racial Identity among White Youth: White Supremacy as a Developmental Context (2022) · cites this paper as Schooley et al., 2019
Cites
White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness
Frankenburg, R. (1993) · doi:10.4324/9780203973431 · Cited by 3,308 · see citing works
Racial Population Projections and Reactions to Alternative News Accounts of Growing Diversity
Myers, D., & Levy, M. (2018) · The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716218766294 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
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Studying Ethnic-Racial Identity among White Youth: White Supremacy as a Developmental Context
Moffitt, U., & Rogers, L. O. (2022) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12762 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“Additional frameworks assessing whiteness have been put forth (for reviews, see Hays et al., 2021; Schooley et al., 2019), including models focusing on white racial consciousness (Rowe et al., 1994), white identity centrality (Knowles & Peng, 2005), white guilt (Grzanka et al., 2020), and the…”
Background
- Authors
- Schooley, R. C., Lee, D. L., & Spanierman, L. B.
- Affiliations
- University of Miami (US)
- Arizona State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lee, Debbiesiu L.
- Venue
- The Counseling Psychologist
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2019-05
- Volume
- 47
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 530-565
- ISSN
- 0011-0000 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-3861
- OpenAlex
- W2990171630
- Cited by
- 45
- References
- 2
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 1.20
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The Counseling Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Counseling Practices and Supervision
- Keywords
- whiteness, racial identity, white privilege, anti-racism, modern racism, attitudes toward Black people, integration, psychometric properties, racial justice, counseling psychology, white supremacy, police brutality, xenophobia, immigration
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