Hate Crimes Hurt More, but so Do Co-Offenders: Separating the Influence of Co-Offending and Bias on Hate-Motivated Physical Injury
Abstract
One of the primary motivations for hate crime laws is that hate crimes “hurt more.” But hate crimes are often committed by groups, and research indicates that crimes committed by groups are also more violent than other crimes. This research focuses on one type of harm, physical injury, asking, are hate crimes more violent because they involve co-offenders or because of the bias motivation behind the incident? Results using data from the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) indicate that hate crimes are positively associated with serious injury, but that this association is partially driven by co-offenders. More importantly, co-offending moderates this relationship: Incidents involving bias and co-offending are especially violent. Anti-sexual orientation incidents were an exception to this pattern, however, and are likely to be violent regardless of co-offending. These results suggest that hate crimes do hurt more, but that this relationship is partially attributable to the influence of co-offenders.
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Collaborating facilitates behaviour that acting alone does not.
“In simple terms, collaborating facilitates behaviour that acting alone does not, a premise supported by a range of empirical evidence (e.g. McGloin & Piquero, 2009; Warr, 2002; Lantz & Kim, 2019).”
From The Compounding Effect: How Co-Offending Exacerbates the Harm Caused by Violent Offenders (2024) · cites this paper as Lantz & Kim, 2019
Cites
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When are victims unlikely to cooperate with the police?
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Self-citationLantz, B. (2021) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260518786497 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
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Criminal Careers Prior to Recruitment into Italian Organized Crime
Meneghini, C., Campedelli, G. M., Calderoni, F., & Comunale, T. (2023) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00111287211035994 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
The Compounding Effect: How Co-Offending Exacerbates the Harm Caused by Violent Offenders
Piper, E., Ariel, B., Harinam, V., & Bland, M. (2024) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-024-09765-9 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
- Authors
- Lantz, B., & Kim, J.
- Affiliations
- Florida State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kim, Joonggon
- ORCID
- Lantz, Brendan
- Venue
- Criminal Justice and Behavior
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2018-11-12
- Volume
- 46
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 437-456
- ISSN
- 0093-8548 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-3594
- OpenAlex
- W2901479178
- Cited by
- 63
- References
- 5
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 5
- FWCI
- 11.38
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Criminal Justice and Behavior (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Crime Patterns and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
- Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Justice and Penology
- Keywords
- hate crimes, co-offending, group offending, personal injury, violence, hate crime legislation, National Incident-Based Reporting System, moderating effect
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