Task effectiveness and word learning in a second language: The involvement load hypothesis on trial

“Focus on form refers to the position held by many instructed SLA researchers that overt attention to linguistic elements is beneficial, if not necessary, for learners to acquire native-like competence (e.g. Doughty & Williams, 1998; Ellis, 2001; Long, 1991; Norris & Ortega, 2000).”

“Focus on form refers to the position held by many instructed SLA researchers that overt attention to linguistic elements is beneficial, if not necessary, for learners to acquire native-like competence (e.g. Doughty & Williams, 1998; Ellis, 2001; Long, 1991; Norris & Ortega, 2000).”

“…on trial Gregory D. Keating San Diego State University, USA This study tests the claim that word learning and retention in a second language are contingent upon a task’s involvement load (i.e. the amount of need, search, and evaluation it imposes), as proposed by Laufer and Hulstijn (2001).”

“This finding corroborates previous studies that showed significantly better word-learning in learners who were required to engage with the novel items in an activity than in learners who did not (e.g. Hulstijn & Laufer, 2001; Joe, 1998; Keating, 2008; Laufer, 2003; Rassaei, 2017; Webb, 2005).”

“However, contradicting this, Keating [13] observed that even though his subjects were informed of upcoming vocabulary posttests, they did not make a conscious effort to commit lexical information to memory.”

“In general, the findings of this study clearly run counter to some of the previous studies (e.g., ELLIS, 1995; FOLSE, 2006; HULSTIJN; LAUFER, 2001; KEATING, 2008; WEBB, 2005) which claimed that controlling for time on task would diminish the effect of more involving tasks on vocabulary learning.”

“To recapitulate, the Involvement Load Hypothesis was basically verified in previous studies (Laufer & Hulstijn, 2001; Keating 2008; Kim 2008), but it was only marginally supported in Huang (2003).”

“(Keating, 2008), a study involving learners of various proficiency levels, to the best of my knowledge, has not been conducted.”

“…knowledge typically lags behind receptive vocabulary knowledge (see Schmitt, 2014, for a review), and the instructional techniques targeting productive knowledge that have been studied to date have shown limited success (Keating, 2008; Pichette, De Serres, & Lafontaine, 2012; Webb, 2005).”

“It has been variously tested in empirical research (e. g., Huang, Willson, & Eslami, 2012; Hulstijn & Laufer, 2001; Keating, 2008; Kim, 2011), and generated positive evidence on its applicability to learners with different L2 proficiency levels in incidental lexical learning.”

“Previous research disagrees on which of these activities is more effective in supporting vocabulary learning (Laufer, 2003; Folse, 2006; Keating, 2008).”

“To the best of our knowledge, the multiple ILH studies (e.g., Jafari et al., 2018; Keating, 2008; Mármol & Sánchez-Lafuente, 2013; Soleimani & Rahmanian, 2014, 2015; Walsh, 2009) have only included fundamental knowledge in glosses, such as the form knowledge and meaning knowledge of words, which…”

“The ILH has been tested in several published experiments (Hulstijn and Laufer 2001; Folse 2006; Kim 2008; Keating 2008; Webb 2008).”

“In order to better elaborate the role of the language of glossing, L1 or L2, in task-induced involvement load, few researches can be found in the literature (e.g., Keating, 2008).”

“- Keating (2008); Alemania - Agustín Llach (2009).”

“As shown in the previous literature, the development of vocabulary is a complex process that may be mediated by the frequency and quality of input of the vocabulary items (Laufer 2009), the type of tasks (Keating 2008), the features of target lexical items, and learners’ metacognitive strategies (Ellis 2005; see also…”

“However, other studies have found that greater cognitive involvement may not necessarily produce higher retention when the amount of time given is considered (Keating, 2008; Webb, 2005).”

“Following Keating (2008), Kim (2011) examined the Involvement Load Hypothesis in an ESL setting, across various exercise types and proficiency levels with a controlled time on task.”

“It is interesting to point out that the results of the present study are in good agreement with the findings of some other researchers following the involvement load hypothesis as their model of reference (e.g., Cho & Ma, 2013; Huang, Willson, & Eslami, 2012; Keating, 2008; Kim, 2008; Nassaji & Hu, 2012; Teng, 2015; Z…”

“Vocabulary learning and retention in a second language depend on the level of engagement in each task (Keating, 2008).”

“Similarly, the composition task has been perceived as important, due to the same properties of the SW with an extra The Journal of Teaching Language Skills / 5(2), Summer 2013, Ser. 71/4 22 benefit: creation of connected pieces of discourse (Keating, 2008).”

“Keating (2008) also criticized Hulstijn and Laufer (2001) for restricting their study to advanced learners, testing only passive vocabulary retention, and not controlling time on task.”

“예컨대, 관여 부담 가설의 이론적 측면에서 논의하는 과업의 수준이 실제에 있어서는 예측에서 벗어나는 사례들이 많았고(e.g., Choi, 2015; Folse, 2006; Keating, 2008; Kim, 2015; Marmol & Sanchez-Lafuente, 2013; Park, 2011; Soleimani & Rahmanian, 2014; Yang et al., 2017; Zou, 2017), 연구 결과의 외적 타당도를 확보하 는 과정에서 외국어로서 영어를 교수학습하는 국내 교실의 특성을 고려하여 우리나라 학생들에게 적용 가능성이 높은 과업들의 관여 부담…”

“Keating (2008) showed that “word learning and retention in a second language are contingent upon a task’s IL (i.e., the amount of need, search, and evaluation it imposes),” (p. 17) as suggested by Laufer and Hulstijn (2001).”

“Many of these have explored lexical acquisition and grammatical accuracy, with most studies of writing focused on the acquisition of discrete forms at the level of the clause or sentence (Barcroft, 2006; Keating, 2008; Kim, 2008).”

“Examples would be Hulstijn and Laufer (2001), Laufer (2005) as well as Keating (2008).”

“L2 acquisition studies (Keating, 2008; Laufer & Hulstijn, 2001; Nassaji & Hu, 2012; Solei-mani & Rahmanian, 2015) showed that tasks involving semantic operations on novel words provide better retention of novel words and their meanings.”

“…las tareas productivas destacan como las más útiles en muchos de estos trabajos: Agustín Llach (2009), Browne (2003), Hulstijn y Laufer (2001), Keating (2008), Kim (2008), Kondo (2007), Laufer (2001; 2003), Pichette, De Serres y Lafontaine (2012), San-Mateo-Valdehíta (2012) y Webb (2005;…”

“…involving communication (Ellis & He, 1999; de la Fuente, 2002; Hughes, 2023; Keck et al., 2006; Tare et al, 2014) and non - communicative tasks (Hughes, 2023; Izumi, 2002; Joe, 1998; Keating, 2008; Kim, 2008; Leeser, 2008; Nguyen & Boers, 2019; Rott, 2004; Tare et al., 2014; Zaki & Ellis, 1999).”

“Similarly, Keating (2008) compared three vocabulary learning tasks and found that writing sentences using the target words was the most effective, followed by reading and completing a gap-fill and finally, reading alone.”

“One of the earlier findings which are consistent with the finding in this research was that of Keating (2008), who examined the effects of two exercises, i.”

“There are few empirical studies which have directly investigated the adequacy of the involvement load hypothesis (e.g. Hulstijn & Laufer, 2001; Keating, 2008; Kim, 2008; Jahangard, 2013; Jahangard & Akbari, 2013; Jing & Jianbin, 2009; Yagubi, Rayati, & Gorgi, 2010).”

“More precisely, Keating (2008) revealed that vocabulary acquisition and retention in a second language are dependants upon a task’s involvement load (i.e., the amount of demand, search, and assessment it imposes), as described by Laufer & Hulstijn (2001).”

“…And Suggestions For Further Research Previous studies of cooperative learning provided evidence that activities that require learners to collaborate with one another in reading a text would enhance self-con dence and reduce reading anxiety (e.g., Hulstijn & Laufer, 2001; Keating, 2008; Webb, 2005).”

“Third, interactive tasks in games can promote deeper levels of processing, increasing the retention of vocabulary knowledge (Craik and Lockhart, 1972; Hulstijn and Laufer, 2001; Keating, 2008; Laufer and Hulstijn, 2001).”

“Barcroft, 2009; Barcroft & Sommers, 2005), or 5-point scoring (e.g. Barcroft, 2003; Barcroft, 2007; Keating, 2008; Smith, 2004).”

“the language a learner produces) must be considered not just a sign of acquired knowledge (Krashen, 1994), but also a sign of learning at work (Swain, 2000). Based on the output hypothesis, learners used vocabulary in output form at the tasks. Swain (2000), in particular, argues that the output “forces” learners to mo…”

“Additionally, many studies have shown that new words in EFL/ESL setting can be stored and retrieved more efficiently by stronger association load (Chen & Chung, 2008; Hulstijin, 2001; Keating, 2008; Mizumoto & Takeuchi, 2009; Schmitt, 2008).”

“Keating (2008) provides further confirmation for this task involvement model.”