Levels of processing: A framework for memory research

Craik, Fergus I.M.; Lockhart, Robert S.

doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(72)80001-x

Cited by 9,566Memory Processes and InfluencesMemory and Neural MechanismsCognitive Functions and Memory

Levels of processing: A framework for memory research

Craik, Fergus I.M., Lockhart, Robert S.·1972·Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior

DOI 10.1016/s0022-5371(72)80001-x

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LOP theory posits that memory for an item depends on the level or relative depth at which the item is processed in a learner's cognitive system.
“Such findings are in line with the levels of processing (LOP) theory of human memory (Craik and Lockhart, 1972), which posits that memory for an item depends on the level or relative depth at which the item is processed in a learner's cognitive system.”
From Effects of sentence writing in second language lexical acquisition (2004) · cites this paper as Craik and Lockhart, 1972
Interactive tasks in games can promote deeper levels of processing, increasing the retention of vocabulary knowledge.
“Third, interactive tasks in games can promote deeper levels of processing, increasing the retention of vocabulary knowledge (Craik and Lockhart, 1972; Hulstijn and Laufer, 2001; Keating, 2008; Laufer and Hulstijn, 2001).”
From Incidental vocabulary learning from digital games: the predictive role of game playing time, foreign language motivation, and anxiety (2026) · cites this paper as Craik and Lockhart, 1972
The strength of a memory is a positive function of the depth to which the stimulus is analyzed.
“They postulated that the strength of a memory is a positive function of the depth to which the stimulus is analyzed.”
From Supporting Novice to Expert Transitions in User Interfaces (2015) · cites this paper as Craik and Lockhart 1972
Deeper mental encodings result in stronger memories.
“In seeking to exploit findings from psychology suggesting that”
From Supporting Novice to Expert Transitions in User Interfaces (2015) · cites this paper as Craik and Lockhart 1972
Released resources from externalisations could serve a deeper elaboration of processed information, which in turn could cause stronger memory representations.
“One might consider that such released resources which come along with externalisations (Kirsh, 2010) could serve a deeper elaboration of the processed information (Sweller et al., 1998). In return, such a deeper elaboration could cause stronger memory representations (Craik & Lockhart, 1972).”
From Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory (2021) · cites this paper as Craik & Lockhart, 1972

Learning is a dynamic process; it takes place during processing.
“Learning is a dynamic process; it takes place during processing, as Hebb ~1949!, Craik and Lockhart ~1972!, Pienemann ~1998!, and O'Grady ~2003! have all reminded us from their different domains+”
From AT THE INTERFACE: DYNAMIC INTERACTIONS OF EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE (2005) · cites this paper as Craik and Lockhart ~1972!
Memory is fundamental for humans to learn knowledge by accumulating important information and abstracting high-level concepts.
“It is fundamental for humans to learn knowledge by accumulating important information and abstracting high-level concepts [85]”
From A Survey on the Memory Mechanism of Large Language Model-based Agents (2025) · cites this paper as [85]
Craik and Lockhart's Levels of Processing theory proposed that what is called memory is actually the processing of information, including perception of incoming information.
“In their Levels of Processing theory, Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed that what we think of as memory is actually the processing of information, including the perception of incoming information.”
From Mental Time Travel? A Neurocognitive Model of Event Simulation. (2020) · cites this paper as Craik and Lockhart (1972)
Recoding strategies may deepen processing, create multiple representations per item, and combine items into chunks.
“These recoding strategies may increase the depth of processing (Craik & Lockhart, 1972), permit the generation of multiple representations for each item (Paivio, 1990) and allow multiple items to be formed into single chunks (Cowan, Chen, & Rouder, 2004).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Craik & Lockhart, 1972
At present, only one processing strategy has clear evidence: processing evidence deeply.
“At present, we find only one strategy for which clear evidence exists: the strategy of processing evidence deeply (cf.Craik & Lockhart, 1972).”
From The role of anomalous data in knowledge acquisition: A theoretical framework and implications for science instruction. (1993) · cites this paper as Craik & Lockhart, 1972

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“In such cases, a plausible suggestion is that I did not process the form sufficiently deeply to ensure retention (Craik and Lockhart 1972).”
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Authors: Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S.
Affiliations: University of Toronto (CA)
ORCID: Craik, Fergus I.M.
Venue: Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 1972-12
Volume: 11
Issue: 6
Pages: 671-684
ISSN: 0022-5371 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/s0022-5371(72)80001-x
OpenAlex: W1990451873
Cited by: 9,566
References: 3
Citations by year: 2026: 233 · 2025: 286 · 2024: 277 · 2023: 258 · 2022: 282 · 2021: 291 · 2020: 322 · 2019: 318 · 2018: 303 · 2017: 307 · 2016: 260 · 2015: 337 · 2014: 327 · 2013: 304 · 2012: 319
FWCI: 44.11
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior (publishedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
Keywords: levels of processing, human memory, verbal learning

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Levels of processing: A framework for memory research

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