Cited by 341Autism Spectrum Disorder ResearchLanguage Development and DisordersChild Nutrition and Feeding Issues

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Predicting Spoken Language Level in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders

Stone, Wendy L., Yoder, Paul J.·2001·Autism

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Abstract

Thirty-five children who received an autism spectrum diagnosis at the age of 2 years (24 with autism, 11 with PDD-NOS) were re-evaluated 2 years later to examine factors related to the development of spoken language. Child variables (play level, motor imitation ability and joint attention) and environmental variables (socioeconomic status and hours of speech/language therapy between ages 2 and 3) were used to predict an aggregate measure of language outcome at age 4. After controlling for age 2 language skills, the only significant predictors were motor imitation and number of hours of sther speech/language therapy. Implications of these results for understanding the early developmental course of autism spectrum disorders and the effects of intervention are discussed.

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Background
Motor Skill Acquisition for Young Children with Disabilities
Favazza, P. C., & Siperstein, G. N. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-28492-7_13 · Cited by 16
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Dawson, G., & Toth, K. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470939406.ch8 · Cited by 17
Sensory–movement underpinnings of lifelong neurodivergence: getting a grip on autism
Kapp, S. K. (2025) · Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnint.2025.1489322 · Cited by 20
Fine motor skill and expressive language in minimally verbal and verbal school‐aged autistic children
Butler, L. K., & Tager-Flusberg, H. B. (2022) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2883 · Cited by 18
“…other studies point to the role of motor development in infancy as a contributing factor to pre-linguistic and expressive language outcomes in the second and third years of life (Bedford et al., 2016; Landa & Garrett-Mayer, 2006; LeBarton & Iverson, 2013; Leonard et al., 2015; Stone & Yoder, 2001).”
Background
The Challenges of Imitation for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders with Implications for General Music Education
Scott, S. (2014) · Update Applications of Research in Music Education · doi:10.1177/8755123314548043 · Cited by 15
“Thus, motor imitation functions as a “cognitive mechanism” (McDuffie, Yoder, & Stone, 2005, p. 1083) for social learning including serving as a motivation for interacting with others (Stone & Yoder, 2001) and for developing shared understandings with others.”
Background
Exploring Motor Speech Disorders in Low and Minimally Verbal Autistic Individuals: An Auditory-Perceptual Analysis
Maffei, M. F., Chenausky, K. V., Haenssler, A. E., Abbiati, C. I., Tager-Flusberg, H. B., & Green, J. R. (2024) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2024_ajslp-23-00237 · Cited by 14
“Stone and Yoder (2001) investigated the language skills of autistic children at the age of 4 years and found that, after controlling for language skills at the age of 2 years, only motor imitation ability and number of hours of speech/language therapy were significant predictors of language…”
Video modeling imitation training to support gestural imitation acquisition in young children with autism spectrum disorder
Cardon, T. A. (2013) · Speech Language and Hearing · doi:10.1179/2050572813y.0000000018 · Cited by 14
“Teaching young children with ASD to imitate gestures is important as a relationship between gestural imitation and expressive language development has been identified (Stone et al., 1997; Stone and Yoder, 2001).”
Background
Does routine child health surveillance contribute to the early detection of children with pervasive developmental disorders? – An epidemiological study in Kent, UK
Reading, R. (2004) · Child Care Health and Development · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2004.00435.x · Cited by 14
What We Do and Don’t Know About Joint Attention
Moll, H. (2023) · Topoi · doi:10.1007/s11245-023-09961-y · Cited by 13
“…projects with children with ASD have furthermore revealed that joint attentional capacities in infancy or the preschool years is positively related to language proficiency and to the child’s social skills during the school years (Mundy et al. 1990; Sigman et al. 1999; Stone & Yoder 2001).”
A Longitudinal Study of Joint Attention, Motor Imitation and Language Development in Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in Taiwan
Iao, L., Shen, C.-W., & Wu, C. (2023) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-023-05950-7 · Cited by 12
“This is new to the literature, extending the motor-oriented theories of language development in ASD from explaining variations in expressive language (e.g., Gernsbacher et al., 2008; Stone et al., 1997; Stone & Yoder, 2001) to receptive and overall language development in children with ASD.”
Differences in Prediction May Underlie Language Disorder in Autism
Weismer, S. E., & Saffran, J. R. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.897187 · Cited by 14
“Importantly, early language abilities predict broader outcomes for children with ASD, including response to treatment and cognitive outcomes (Stone and Yoder, 2001; Szatmari et al., 2003; Eigsti et al., 2011).”
Background
Developmental changes of expressive language and interactive competences in children with autism
Pry, R., Petersen, A. F., & Baghdadli, A. (2008) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2008.04.005 · Cited by 12
Constraints on language development Insights from developmental disorders
Thomas, M. S. C. (2005) · BIROn (Birkbeck, University of London) · Cited by 12
Social and Communication Skills Predict Imitation Abilities in Children with Autism
So, W., Wong, M. K.-Y., & Lam, K.-Y. (2016) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2016.00003 · Cited by 11
The relationship of early communication concerns to developmental delay and symptoms of autism spectrum disorders
Turygin, N. C., Matson, J. L., Konst, M. J., & Williams, L. W. (2013) · Developmental Neurorehabilitation · doi:10.3109/17518423.2012.756950 · Cited by 11
“Language ability is a predictor of long-term outcomes in children with ASD at age five [18, 19] In this study, we sought to extend the findings of two previous studies.”
Result
Comparação do processo evolutivo de crianças do espectro autístico em diferentes intervenções terapêuticas fonoaudiológicas
Tamanaha, A. C., & Perissinoto, J. (2011) · Jornal da Sociedade Brasileira de Fonoaudiologia · doi:10.1590/s2179-64912011000100005 · Cited by 10
Personal pronoun errors in form versus meaning produced by children with and without autism spectrum disorder
Zane, E. R., Arunachalam, S., & Luyster, R. (2021) · Journal of Cultural Cognitive Science · doi:10.1007/s41809-021-00087-4 · Cited by 10
Application of the Communication Complexity Scale in Peer and Adult Assessment Contexts for Preschoolers With Autism Spectrum Disorders
Thiemann-Bourque, K. S., Brady, N. C., & Hoffman, L. (2018) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2018_ajslp-18-0054 · Cited by 11
“JA has become a key target of early interventions based on longitudinal studies showing clear associations between improved JA and later language, vocabulary, social communication, and peer interactions (Kasari et al., 2008, 2012; Sigman et al., 1999; Stone & Yoder, 2001).”
Background
Language Outcomes for Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders
Watson, L. R., & Flippin, M. (2008) · ASHA Leader · doi:10.1044/leader.ftr1.13072008.8 · Cited by 10
Assessment of presentation patterns, clinical severity, and sensorial mechanism of tip-toe behavior in severe ASD subjects with intellectual disability: A cohort observational study
Valagussa, G., Trentin, L., Balatti, V., & Grossi, E. (2017) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1796 · Cited by 9
“Similar relations have been found also in children with atypical development [Hill, 2001] but also in ASD children [Stone & Yoder, 2001; Gernsbacher, Sauer, Geye, Kees, & Goldsmith, 2008] and in later-born siblings of children with autism [LeBarton & Iverson, 2013; Leonard, Bedford, Pickles, Hill,…”
Result
Early-stage identification of autism in children using gesture monitoring based on artificial intelligence
Gopi, V. P., Francis, B., & Thomas, A. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-19073-5.00018-5 · Cited by 9
Interactive mirrOring Games wIth sOCial rObot (IOGIOCO): a pilot study on the use of intransitive gestures in a sample of Italian preschool children with autism spectrum disorder
Annunziata, S., Santos, L., Caglio, A., Geminiani, A., Brazzoli, E., Piazza, E., Olivieri, I., Pedrocchi, A., & Cavallini, A. R. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1356331 · Cited by 9
“Better imitation skills in children with ASD are often associated with verbal language development in the short and long term (21).”
Background
Motor-based interventions improve language outcomes in children with autism: a systematic review
Odeh, C., Martell, R., Griffin, S., Johnson, E. R., & Gladfelter, A. (2020) · Clinical Archives of Communication Disorders · doi:10.21849/cacd.2020.00192 · Cited by 9
Early childhood autism services: How wide is the research to practice divide?
McIntyre, L. L., & Barton, E. E. (2010) · Behavioral Development · doi:10.1037/h0100518 · Cited by 11
Using Progressive Time Delay to Increase Levels of Peer Imitation During Sculpting Play
Sweeney, E. M., Barton, E. E., & Ledford, J. R. (2018) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3638-2 · Cited by 9
“1997; Stone and Yoder 2001) and gives children access to observational learning opportunities (Bandura 1977).”
Background
Association between Motor and Language Skills Development in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Scoping Review
Hwang, B. H., & Lee, D. (2022) · International Journal of Disability Development and Education · doi:10.1080/1034912x.2022.2092081 · Cited by 9
“A few studies proposed practical implications for focused intervention in autistic children with other skill impairments or delays (Bal et al., 2020; Mody et al., 2017; Sandbank et al., 2017; Stone & Yoder, 2001).”
Background
Teaching children generalized imitation skills
Brown, F. J., Peace, N., & Parsons, R. (2009) · Journal of Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1177/1744629509103514 · Cited by 9
Describing (pre)linguistic oral productions in 3- to 5-year-old autistic children: A cluster analysis
Maes, P., Weyland, M., & Kissine, M. (2022) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613221122663 · Cited by 9
“However, consistent with previous reports (Anderson et al., 2007; Stone & Yoder, 2016), our results suggest that socioeconomic status does not predict spoken language proficiency in autism.”
Result
Talk to Me: Issues in Acquiring Spoken Language for Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders
Paul, R. (2009) · ASHA Leader · doi:10.1044/leader.ftr6.14142009.10 · Cited by 8
Preventing challenging behaviours in children with Down syndrome: Attention to early developing repertoires
Feeley, K. M., & Jones, E. A. (2008) · Down Syndrome Research and Practice · doi:10.3104/reviews.2076 · Cited by 8
Portable Intermodal Preferential Looking (IPL): Investigating Language Comprehension in Typically Developing Toddlers and Young Children with Autism
Naigles, L., & Tovar, A. T. (2012) · Journal of Visualized Experiments · doi:10.3791/4331-v · Cited by 8
Examining Useful Spoken Language in a Minimally Verbal Child With Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Descriptive Clinical Single-Case Study
Biller, M. F., & Johnson, C. J. (2020) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2020_ajslp-19-00085 · Cited by 7
Imitation fluency in a student with autism spectrum disorder: an experimental case study
Lin, F.-Y., & Kubina, R. M. (2015) · European Journal of Behavior Analysis · doi:10.1080/15021149.2015.1065637 · Cited by 7
“Even the rate of language development in the early childhood period can be best predicted by imitation (Charman et al., 2003; Stone & Yoder, 2001).”
Background
A Multimodal Interaction System for Speech-Based Autism Intervention in Sinhala-Speaking Sri Lankan Children using the NAO Robot
Jayawardena, A., Manukalpa, C. S., Bopage, H., Panduwawala, P., Pulasinghe, K., & Rajapakshe, S. (2024) · International Conference on Advancements in Computing (ICAC) · doi:10.1109/icac64487.2024.10851032 · Cited by 6
Effectiveness of Discrete Trial Training Program for Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Ünlü, E., Vuran, S., & Diken, İ. H. (2018) · International Journal of Progressive Education · doi:10.29329/ijpe.2018.146.2 · Cited by 6
“…studies supporting this situation and presenting results suggesting that there is a positive relationship between imitation skills and language skills, and imitation skills predict the development of language skills (Sigman & Ungerer, 1984; Stone, Ousley & Littleford, 1997; Stone & Yoder, 2001).”
Result

Authors: Stone, W. L., & Yoder, P. J.
Affiliations: Vanderbilt University (US)
ORCID: Stone, Wendy L.
Yoder, Paul J.
Venue: Autism
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2001-12
Volume: 5
Issue: 4
Pages: 341-361
ISSN: 1362-3613 (ISSN-L)
1461-7005
DOI: 10.1177/1362361301005004002
OpenAlex: W2138574607
Semantic Scholar: ccebaeb055fe7736f7f5aff5dc2832d33a57498c
Cited by: 340
References: 74
Citations by year: 2026: 1 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 26 · 2019: 24 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 27 · 2013: 19 · 2012: 12
FWCI: 1.75
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Autism (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5r29mh050620-05)
National Institute of Mental Health (MH-50620)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Language Development and Disorders
Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Child Nutrition and Feeding Issues
Keywords: autism spectrum disorder, speech development, language outcome prediction, motor imitation, joint attention, speech therapy, socioeconomic status, early intervention, toddlers, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified
MeSH terms: Autistic Disorder, Child, Preschool, Female, Humans, Language Disorders, Language Therapy, Male, Prognosis, Socioeconomic Factors, Time Factors, Early Intervention, Educational

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Predicting Spoken Language Level in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders

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