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Examining the presence, consequences, and reduction of implicit bias in health care: A narrative review
Open accessAbstract
Recent evidence suggests that one possible cause of disparities in health outcomes for stigmatized groups is the implicit biases held by health care providers. In response, several health care organizations have called for, and developed, new training in implicit bias for their providers. This review examines current evidence on the role that provider implicit bias may play in health disparities, and whether training in implicit bias can effectively reduce the biases that providers exhibit. Directions for future research on the presence and consequences of provider implicit bias, and best practices for training to reduce such bias, will be discussed.
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“The scientific community working in this area agrees that the relationship between levels of implicit bias in healthcare professionals and clinical decision-making is complex and that there is currently a lack of good evidence for a direct negative influence of biases [16, 17].”
From Implicit bias in healthcare professionals: a systematic review (2017) · cites this paper as [16]
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BackgroundLiblik, K., Byun, J., Lloyd-Kuzik, A., Farina, J., Burgos, L., Howes, D., & Baranchuk, A. (2022) · Current problems in cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.cpcardiol.2022.101159 · Cited by 16
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BackgroundRace, Ethnicity, and Culture in the Medical Record: Implicit Bias or Patient Advocacy?
Fadus, M. C., Odunsi, O. T., & Squeglia, L. M. (2019) · Academic Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s40596-019-01035-9 · Cited by 16
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“While there are many studies that demonstrate the existence of implicit bias in medicine, there are few studies that attempt to address implicit bias (28).”
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Socioeconomic status and risk of in-hospital cardiac arrest
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Confronting implicit bias toward patients: a scoping review of post-graduate physician curricula
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“This differential in care remains after controlling for economic status, educational level, and healthcare access, suggesting discrimination on the part of the medical system [4], where covert prejudice remains present at the individual and institutional levels.”
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Gay- and Straight-Sounding Auditory Cues Elicit Stereotyping About Teaching Effectiveness
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“Jackson et al. (2014) uncovered implicit bias against women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics fields, and Zestcott et al. (2016) reported that many health care providers exhibited negative subliminal judgment toward overweight patients, low-income earners, individuals with…”
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“Thus, implicit bias interventions that challenge providers’ perception of racial/ethnic minorities or informs providers of what is happening in countries where clients emigrated from may help improve patient/provider communication (Zestcott et al. 2016).”
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“Interventionen, die darauf abzielen, Rassismus und strukturelle Diskriminierung im Gesundheitswesen zu reduzieren, setzen vornehmlich darauf, Mitarbeitende für ihren Implicit Bias zu sensibilisieren [31, 32].”
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Boley, S. P., Sidebottom, A. C., Vacquier, M. C., WATSON, D. A., Eyll, B. V., Friedman, S., & Friedman, S. (2024) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-024-02080-3 · Cited by 11
“Such bias has been identified as a factor that contributes to disparities in care [3, 6–10]—it has recently been argued that along with structural racism, one of the driving reasons behind the 2–3 times higher prevalence of maternal mortality among Black women is physician implicit bias [11, 12].”
Garrett, S. B., Walia, A., Miller, F., Tahir, P., Jones, L., Harris, J., Powell, B., Chambers, B. D., & Simon, M. A. (2022) · Clinical Obstetrics & Gynecology · doi:10.1097/grf.0000000000000761 · Cited by 19
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“Although the literature abounds with articles using the IAT in implicit bias training (Zestcott et al. 2016; Maina et al. 2018; Sherman et al. 2019) we were struck by the dearth of information specific to the impact or long-term outcomes (defined as sustained intentionality 11–13months…”
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“Implicit bias among healthcare providers has been shown to affect decision making in diagnosis and treatment, interpersonal communication, and patient trust (Zestcott et al., 2016).”
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“Recent literature reviews [8-10] report on widespread implicit biases among clinicians.”
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“Several other studies have shown that Black individuals reported less positive clinical interactions with health care providers who have higher levels of implicit biases that favor Whites over Blacks (Zestcott et al., 2016).”
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“Implicit biases, shaped by societal stereotypes and personal experiences, operate unconsciously and significantly influence decision-making, as evidenced by Zestcott et al. (14).”
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“Other health care disparities related to factors such as socio-economic status, sexual orientation and gender are possibly partly due to implicit biases [22].”
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Implicit bias assessment by career stage in medical education training: a narrative review
Crump, A. A., Al-Jorani, M. S., Ahmed, S., Abrol, E. S., & Jain, S. (2025) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-024-06319-9 · Cited by 8
“The multifactorial nature of implicit bias presents ongoing challenges and has resulted in limited detection methods in public health and clinical settings [14].”
Shifting paradigms: A collective and structural strategy for addressing healthcare inequity
Monteiro, S., Acai, A., Kahlke, R., Chan, T. M., & Sukhera, J. I. (2024) · Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1111/jep.14013 · Cited by 8
Intergroup Contact Improves Medical Student Attitudes and Skill in Transgender Health Care
Ruprecht, K. A., Dunlop, W. A., Wah, E., Phillips, C., & Martin, S. (2023) · Transgender Health · doi:10.1089/trgh.2021.0203 · Cited by 7
“19,20 The literature recognizes that health care students and providers hold biases toward minority groups, which negatively influence the quality of care and health outcomes of these populations 21,22 through delayed presentation and poorer treatment or withholding care when it is sought.”
Potential influence of nurses’ implicit racial bias on maternal mortality
Rattan, J., & Bartlett, T. (2023) · Public Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/phn.13201 · Cited by 8
Patient perspectives of the climate of diversity, equity, and inclusion in the emergency department
Davuluri, K., Goyal, N., Acevedo, H. G., Folt, J., Jayaprakash, N., Slezak, M., & Caldwell, M. T. (2022) · Journal of the American College of Emergency Physicians Open · doi:10.1002/emp2.12798 · Cited by 8
Zestcott, C. A., Ruiz, J. M., Tietje, K. R., & Stone, J. (2021) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1093/abm/kaab103 · Cited by 15
Self-citationNandi, M., Moore, J., Colom, M., Quezada, A. D. R. G., Chary, A. N., & Austad, K. (2020) · Global Health Science and Practice · doi:10.9745/ghsp-d-19-00377 · Cited by 6
Schultz, A. S. H., Dahl, L., McGibbon, E., Brownlie, R. J., Cook, C., Elbarouni, B., Katz, A., Nguyen, T., Sawatzky, J. A., Sinclaire, M., et al. (2018) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2017-020856 · Cited by 7
Thompson, C., Bishop, M. J., Dillard, T., Maurice, J. M., Rollins, D. D., Pulido, M. D., Salas, M. J., Mendelson, E. A., Yan, J., Gerlikovski, E., et al. (2024) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2024.2347000 · Cited by 6
“For instance, NYC Health + Hospitals System added a VR training in which providers are transported to a labor and delivery room where they communicate with a patient and team members to follow hospital protocol effectively and safely when triaging an emergency during labor (NYC Health + Hospitals,…”
The ethics of infant and early childhood mental health practice.
Lim, I., Korfmacher, J., Steier, A., Zeanah, C., & Zeanah, P. (2023) · Infant Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1002/imhj.22055 · Cited by 6
Socioeconomic status and outcomes after in-hospital cardiac arrest
Stankovic, N., Holmberg, M. J. J., Granfeldt, A., & Andersen, L. W. (2022) · Resuscitation · doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2022.08.014 · Cited by 8
The Impact of Primary Care Providers’ Bias on Depression Screening for Lesbian Women
Sha, S., & Aleshire, M. E. (2021) · Health Promotion Practice · doi:10.1177/15248399211066079 · Cited by 6
“Although bias-awareness strategies, control strategies, perspective-taking strategies, and mitigation strategies have all begun to be implemented with health care providers, little research has evaluated the effectiveness of such interventions to improve patient outcomes and reduce health disparities for LGBTQ populat…”
BackgroundCautions About Medicalized Dehumanization.
Stern, A. (2021) · AMA journal of ethics · doi:10.1001/amajethics.2021.64 · Cited by 6
E-VOLUTION: A Text Messaging–Powered Intervention—Connection, Support, and HIV Eradication
Gerke, D. R., Glotfelty, J., Schlueter, J., Freshman, M., & Plax, K. L. (2020) · Health Promotion Practice · doi:10.1177/1524839920936242 · Cited by 6
“Furthermore, automated texting may help YLWH overcome implicit racial bias and other identity-related factors that lead to unequal treatment and perpetuate health disparities (Zestcott et al., 2016).”
BackgroundBiases in the evaluation of self-harm in patients with disability due to spinal cord injury
Budd, M. A., Haque, O. S., & Stein, M. A. (2020) · Spinal Cord Series and Cases · doi:10.1038/s41394-020-0293-6 · Cited by 10
Accessing Counseling Services Where the Rainbow Doesn’t Shine: A Heterosexism Audit Study
Shin, R. Q., Smith, L. C., Vernay, C. N., Welch, J. C., Sharma, R., & Eberhardt, M. (2020) · Journal of Homosexuality · doi:10.1080/00918369.2020.1734377 · Cited by 7
Iudici, A., Faccio, E., Castelnuovo, G., & Turchi, G. P. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00157 · Cited by 7
Principles and Practice of College Health
Vaughn, J. A., & Viera, A. (2021) · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-56309-7 · Cited by 6
Khamis-Dakwar, R., & Randazzo, M. (2021) · Critical Perspectives on Social Justice in Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-7134-7.ch007 · Cited by 6
A Short Review of Ethical Challenges in Clinical Natural Language Processing
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Pennington, C. R., Ploszajski, M., Mistry, P. J., Ngombe, N., Back, C., Parsons, S. D., & Shaw, D. J. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1197298 · Cited by 12
“Spanning far beyond social psychology, the race- IAT has entered into policy, political, and public discourse (Spencer et al., 2016; Zestcott et al., 2016; Atewologun et al., 2018; Yen et al., 2018).”
BackgroundWasmuth, S., Belkiewitz, J., Bravata, D. M., Horsford, C., Harris, A., Smith, C. P., Austin, C., & Miech, E. J. (2022) · Implementation Science Communications · doi:10.1186/s43058-022-00332-z · Cited by 6
“Levin and colleagues [9], drawing on the work of Akrami, Ekehammar, and Bergh [11], conceptualize stigma as “a more general tendency to evaluate and discriminate against others based on their group membership, rather than being specific to attitudes towards any one group in particular.””
BackgroundPernicious executive order 13950 revoked, yet structural racism looms large
Fix, R. L. (2021) · Leadership · doi:10.1177/17427150211012499 · Cited by 6
“Research among health care providers demonstrates that providers’ levels of implicit bias can be changed through intervention and are significantly related to improved patient health (Hall et al., 2015; Zestcott et al., 2016).”
BackgroundRahman, M. M., Howard, G., Qian, J., Garza, K. B., Abebe, A., & Hansen, R. A. (2020) · Journal of the American Pharmacists Association · doi:10.1016/j.japh.2020.08.041 · Cited by 5
Reducing barriers to care for patients who practise consensual nonmonogamy
Flicker, S. (2019) · Canadian Medical Association Journal · doi:10.1503/cmaj.191246 · Cited by 5
Panebianco, N., Shofer, F., O'Conor, K., Wihbey, T., Mulugeta, L., Baston, C., Suzuki, E., Alghamdi, A., & Dean, A. (2018) · Journal of ultrasound in medicine · doi:10.1002/jum.14546 · Cited by 5
“The current wisdom is that bias awareness is an essential first step in modifying the effect of an implicit bias.(4) This study explored the truth about patient preferences regarding a sensitive procedure so that the provider bias on the subject can begin to change.”
BackgroundReynolds, K. J., & Klik, K. A. (2016) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.07.006 · Cited by 4
Georges, M. R., Courtepatte, A., Hibara, A., Harris, J., Beckford, T., Wiley, D., Weinberger, E., Rudel, R. K., Dugan, E., Jay, J. S., et al. (2025) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.4074 · Cited by 5
Lewis, M. E., Blackmore, I., Kamaka, M. L., Wildcat, S., Anderson-Buettner, A. S., Modde, E., Myhra, L. L., Smith, J. B., & Stately, A. L. (2025) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph22030445 · Cited by 6
“The results of this research provide yet another example of how negative assumptions and biases at both clinical provider and structural levels contribute to health disparities in minority populations [39,41,44].”
Design and pilot test of an implicit bias mitigation curriculum for clinicians
Svetkey, L., Bennett, G. G., Reese, B., Corsino, L., Pinheiro, S. O., Fischer, J., Seidenstein, J., Olsen, M., Brown, T. H., Ezem, N., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2024.1316475 · Cited by 4
Recognising and managing bias and prejudice in healthcare
Lee, A. C., & Hastie, M. (2024) · BJA Education · doi:10.1016/j.bjae.2024.03.006 · Cited by 4
Professional stigma towards clients with methamphetamine use disorder – a qualitative study
Makki, A., Day, C., & Chaar, B. B. (2024) · Journal of Pharmaceutical Policy and Practice · doi:10.1080/20523211.2024.2306869 · Cited by 6
“…formsofbiastowardsmarginalisedgroupsof people(Breneretal.,2007; FitzGerald & Hurst, 2017; Maina et al., 2018), thereby impacting clinical decision-making and care, contributing to healthcare disparities in margina-lised populations (Chapman et al., 2013; Peris et al., 2008; Zestcott et al., 2016).”
BackgroundTraining Student Pharmacists in Microaggressions and Gender Inclusive Communication
Willson, M. N., Frazier, C. C., & McKeirnan, K. C. (2024) · American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education · doi:10.1016/j.ajpe.2024.100676 · Cited by 5
Benau, E. M., Zavodnick, J. H., & Jaffe, R. C. (2024) · The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse · doi:10.1080/00952990.2023.2300398 · Cited by 3
“Further research is needed to confirm whether healthcare providers have less insight into their biases than the general population, determine what the consequences of that discrepancy may be, and design appropriate interventions to improve outcomes (42,62).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Zestcott, C. A., Blair, I. V., & Stone, J.
- Affiliations
- University of Arizona (US)
- University of Colorado, USA
- Corresponding author
- Zestcott, Colin A.
- Venue
- Group Processes & Intergroup Relations
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2016-05-08
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 528-542
- ISSN
- 1368-4302 (ISSN-L)
- 1461-7188
- PMC
- PMC4990077
- OpenAlex
- W2347070413
- Cited by
- 381
- References
- 146
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 34 · 2024: 49 · 2023: 53 · 2022: 62 · 2021: 49 · 2020: 46 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 24 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 7
- FWCI
- 9.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Group Processes & Intergroup Relations (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities (R01MD008940)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Cultural Competency in Health Care
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Keywords
- implicit bias, healthcare workers, health disparities, implicit bias training, stigmatized groups, health equity
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