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Why Poaching Pays: A Summary of Risks and Benefits Illegal Hunters Face in Western Serengeti, Tanzania
Open accessAbstract
Illegal hunting poses a considerable threat to the wildlife of Serengeti National Park and its affiliated protected areas. Techniques for successful mitigation of this threat are heavily debated. Bottom-up community-based initiatives aim to curb poaching by linking local communities with wildlife conservation. Top-down anti-poaching enforcement of protected areas seeks to maintain wildlife populations through fines and prison sentences given to arrested poachers. Poverty stands as the major driver of illegal hunting as households vie for income and sustenance. Livelihoods of illegal hunters have been augmented considerably through revenue generated from bushmeat sales. Illegal hunters use bushmeat both for supplementing household protein and for economic gain. Obtaining bushmeat carries risks in the form of personal injury, fines, and/or prison sentences, if arrested. This paper compares these costs and benefits through a summary of the monetary benefits, bodily injuries, fines, and prison sentences that individuals endured over their poaching careers. Data were collected from 104 individuals, all of whom voluntarily admitted active or recent involvement in illegal hunting activities.
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“The extremely high levels of poaching in SVC were the result of a large human population being settled on private land with large wildlife populations, and were exacerbated by Zimbabwe’s economic crisis and food shortages arising from the FTLRP (Knapp, 2012; Lindsey et al., 2011a; Moss, 2007)”
From The impact of land reform on the status of large carnivores in Zimbabwe (2016) · cites this paper as Knapp, 2012
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“Bushmeat hunting thus serves as both a source of food and income (Barnett, 2000; Bennett et al., 2002; Kaltenborn et al., 2005; Knapp, 2012; Knapp et al., 2010).”
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“Due to the costs of housing and feeding inmates, prison sentences tend to be less than one month with longer sentences (none longer than two years) reserved for the most notorious poachers (Knapp 2012).”
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“(Table 2) has created a huge demand for bushmeat which is used as a coping strategy against poverty and lack of employment (Campbell and Hofer 1995; Loibooki et al. 2002; Kideghesho et al. 2005; Knapp 2012; Bitanyi et al. 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialDeterring poaching in western Tanzania: The presence of wildlife researchers
Stewart, A. P. F. S. A. P. F., Lenoël, A., Johnson, C. L., & Stewart, F. A. (2014) · Global Ecology and Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2014.11.014 · Cited by 63
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“Knapp [41] stresses that even though illegal hunters are commonly conceived as poor farmers, with low level of education and few alternative livelihoods options, hunting may also be driven by a desire to improve skills, identity formation, opposition to authorities, boredom, and thrill seeking.”
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Kideghesho, J. R. (2016) · Tropical Conservation Science · doi:10.1177/194008291600900120 · Cited by 55
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“Tanzania’s wildlife species are subjected to unprecedented pressures caused by numerous factors including human population growth, urbanization, climate change, poverty, habitat loss and poaching (see e.g., Kideghesho et al., 2020; Kimaro & Kisingo, 2017; Knapp, 2012; Loibooki et al., 2002).”
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“Theoretical, empirical, and experimental studies suggest that socioeconomic characteristics (Baruch-Mordo et al. 2011, Kahler and Gore 2012, Knapp 2012, Moreto and Lemieux 2015), ecological attributes (Carter et al. 2017, Ntuli and Muchapondwa 2018), and community variables such as institutions…”
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“While bushmeat hunting in purely economic terms may still be considered more lucrative by poachers than participating in a COCOBA project, nearly all poachers in this study indicated that the personal risks associated with bushmeat poaching can be high (Knapp 2012).”
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“…of a large human population being 254 settled on private land with large wildlife populations, and were exacerbated by Zimbabwe’s 255 economic crisis and food shortages arising from the FTLRP (Knapp, 2012; Lindsey et al., 2011a; 256 Moss, 2007), limiting carnivore abundance in the private LUT.”
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Zyambo, P., Kalaba, F. K., Nyirenda, V. R., & Mwitwa, J. (2022) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su141811204 · Cited by 16
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Agent-based modelling as a tool for elephant poaching mitigation
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“There is very little empirical data available on the probability of catching poachers and the number is likely to differ depending on the site; one study estimated poachers in Western Serengeti, Tanzania, faced just a 0.07% chance of being arrested per day spent poaching (Knapp, 2012).”
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“The benefits are greater than the costs and risks associated with poaching (Messer, 2010; Knapp, 2012).”
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Expanding the Mission Capabilities of a Quadrotor Biplane Tail-sitter with Morphing Winglets
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Illegal Hunting and Bushmeat Trade around Save Valley Conservancy
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“The monthly income gained by most of the illegal hunters ranged from US$ 50 to above US$ 200 which is way lower than the US$ 400 gained by illegal hunters in western Serengeti (Knapp 2012) and comparable to US$ 300 gained by professionals like teachers, nurses, and police of fi cers in Zimbabwe.”
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Can Socioeconomic Variables Influence Bird Hunting Activity in the Brazil's Semi-Arid Region?
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“In this context, hunting activity risk can be an important variable since hunters prefer smaller animals or herbivores because they offer less risk of injury (Knapp, 2012; Chaves et al., 2020).”
BackgroundInfluentialLooking to aquatic species for conservation farming success
Gentry, R. R., Gaines, S. D., Gabe, J., & Lester, S. E. (2019) · Conservation Letters · doi:10.1111/conl.12681 · Cited by 8
“…to be approximately more than $120,000.2 While increasing fines or enforcement can have unintended consequences (see for example Hübschle, 2017; Knapp, 2012), it is worth considering whether strategically coupling increased enforcement with a captive breeding program could help farming for…”
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Role of local markets in illegal wildlife trade and conservation efforts for trafficked species
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Gandiwa, E. (2013) · doi:10.18174/278659 · Cited by 7
“This suggests that law enforcement is crucial in curbing unsustainable and illegal exploitation of animal populations (Holmern et al. 2007; Keane et al. 2008; Knapp 2012).”
BackgroundMatungwa, L. E., Kegamba, J. J., Kisingo, A. W., & Masuruli, M. B. (2024) · African Geographical Review · doi:10.1080/19376812.2024.2318752 · Cited by 8
“Due to the risks of detection, most illegal activities are carried out at night (Knapp, 2012).”
InfluentialRust, N. A. (2015) · Kent Academic Repository (University of Kent) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/2kdfy · Cited by 6
“This is because the poachers like those noted in Chapter 5 were often forced into a life of illegal hunting due to suffering from intense poverty with no other economic alternatives (Knapp, 2012)22.”
BackgroundChebby, F., Mmbaga, N. E., & Ngongolo, K. (2021) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1175273/v1 · Cited by 6
“As supported by Loibooki et al. (2002) and Knapp (2012), the close linkage between the diversi cation of sources of earning income and illegal conduct inside or around protected and conserved areas may induce unfavorable land use/ land change cover thus leading to the destruction of wildlife…”
BackgroundNon-Timber Forest Products in Cat Tien: Local Use and Sustainable Management
Dinh, T. S., & Pham, T. V. (2023) · Jurnal Manajemen Hutan Tropika (Journal of Tropical Forest Management) · doi:10.7226/jtfm.29.1.79 · Cited by 5
Wildlife crime: causes, consequences and countermeasures: A review
Narreddy, V., & Shashidhar, E. S. (2024) · International Journal of Science and Research Archive · doi:10.30574/ijsra.2024.11.1.0253 · Cited by 4
Charles, R., Makinde, O. D., & Kung’aro, M. (2022) · Open Journal of Ecology · doi:10.4236/oje.2022.1211041 · Cited by 4
Kideghesho, J. R. (2019) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.89909 · Cited by 5
“Address the problem of household poverty and unemployment [21, 22, 35, 64, 65]”
BackgroundInfluentialWildlife Crime and Other Challenges to Resource System Resilience
Raxter, P. (2015) · ODU Digital Commons (Old Dominion University) · doi:10.25777/8dxn-x142 · Cited by 4
Managing social-ecological systems under uncertainty : implications for conservation
Nuño, A. (2013) · Spiral (Imperial College London) · doi:10.25560/18974 · Cited by 4
“Agriculture is the most common source of income for these rural households, followed by livestock, while the importance of bushmeat hunting for the local economy has been suggested to be considerable but has been difficult to quantify (Barnett 2000; Knapp 2007, 2012).”
BackgroundGreen Eyes: the current role of intelligence in African counter-poaching
Steiner, K. W. (2020) · African Security Review · doi:10.1080/10246029.2020.1781671 · Cited by 3
Socio-economic factors correlating with illegal use of giraffe body parts
Muneza, A., Amakobe, B., Kasaine, S., Kramer, D., Githiru, M., Roloff, G. J., Hayward, M. W., & Montgomery, R. A. (2023) · Oryx · doi:10.1017/s003060532200062x · Cited by 3
An Economic Analysis of Poaching: Linking with Village Characteristics surrounding A Protected Area
Assogba, N. P., & Zhang, D. (2021) · Human Dimensions of Wildlife · doi:10.1080/10871209.2021.1956649 · Cited by 3
“, 2003), income level (Duffy & St John, 2013; Knapp, 2012), and access to financial capital (Assogba & Zhang, 2020; Challender & MacMillan, 2014).”
BackgroundIllegal urban wild meat supply chain characterization: A case study on zoonosis in Lusaka, Zambia
Mukanganwa, B. A., Mukuma, M., Shindano, J., & Moonga, H. B. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0342396 · Cited by 3
Analysis of Economic Efficiency of Wildlife Law Enforcement in Serengeti Ecosystem Tanzania
Nyanghura, Q. M., & Abdallah, J. M. (2023) · Journal of Environmental Protection · doi:10.4236/jep.2023.147032 · Cited by 2
The Consumption of Bushmeat in Tombel, Southwest Region, Cameroon
Maurice, M., Fuashi, N. A., Manyi, E. S., & Mbinde, E. Q. (2017) · International Journal of Research in Environmental Science · doi:10.20431/2454-9444.0304002 · Cited by 1
“Despite the difference in ecosystem between the mainly tropical forests of Western and Central Africa and savannah, studies have shown some similarities, such as urban centres driving commercialisation of bushmeat (Lindsey et al, 2013) and reliance of rural people on bushmeat for food and income (Knapp, 2012).”
BackgroundNyaki, A. (2013) · ScholarSpace (University of Hawaii at Manoa) · Cited by 2
Matungwa, L. E., Kegamba, J. J., Kisingo, A. W., & Masuruli, M. B. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.12.21.521527 · Cited by 2
Protected Areas and Rural Livelihood: An overview of the Mediating role of Wildlife Tourism
Mgonja, J. T. (2023) · Studia Periegetica · doi:10.58683/sp.345 · Cited by 1
Understanding unauthorised hunting for effective conservation interventions
Wilfred, P., Travers, H., Coad, L., Mutayoba, V. R., Magige, F. J., Nahonyo, C. L., & Milner‐Gulland, E. J. (2025) · Biological Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111336 · Cited by 1
Kegamba, J. J., & Siga, A. A. (2025) · Global Ecology and Conservation · doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2025.e03743 · Cited by 1
Mwampeta, S. B., Wilton, C. M., Mkasanga, I. J., Bled, F., Masinde, L. M., Røskaft, E., Ranke, P. S., Fyumagwa, R., & Belant, J. L. (2022) · Wildlife Biology · doi:10.1002/wlb3.01030 · Cited by 1
A horizon scan of environmental drivers of poverty
Daley, B., & Acker, W. (2015) · doi:10.12774/eod_hd.march_2015.daley_et_al · Cited by 1
“…Adhikari et al. (2010) provide an example based on the economic valuation of mangrove ecosystems in Pakistan 10 See Amechi (2009); Ikejiaku (2009); Knapp (2012) iii frameworks – with adequate policy at all levels, and policy integration between levels – to address the challenge of climate change…”
BackgroundEcosystems - Burden or Bounty?
Scandizzo, P. L., Damania, R., & Glauber, A. J. (2014) · World Bank, Washington, DC eBooks · doi:10.1596/1813-9450-6890 · Cited by 1
Role of Local Markets in Illegal Wildlife Trafficking in BeninPreprint
Koutchoro, A. M., Amahowe, O. I., Houessou, L. G., & Lougbégnon, T. O. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4830084 · Cited by 1
Ecosystems - Burden or Bounty?Preprint
Damania, R., Scandizzo, P. L., & Glauber, A. J. (2014) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2477714
Metadata
- Authors
- Knapp, E. J.
- Affiliations
- Houghton University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Knapp, Eli J.
- Venue
- Tropical Conservation Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2012-12
- Volume
- 5
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 434-445
- ISSN
- 1940-0829 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2308692502
- Cited by
- 111
- References
- 31
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 6
- FWCI
- 5.31
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Tropical Conservation Science (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Nature and Landscape Conservation › Wildlife Conservation and Criminology Analyses
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Conservation, Biodiversity, and Resource Management
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
- Keywords
- poaching, bushmeat trade, wildlife conservation, community-based conservation, Serengeti National Park, imprisonment and fines
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