Adult Outcomes for Students with Cognitive Disabilities Three-Years After High School: The Impact of Self-Determination

“…researchers have also identified other skills correlated with improved postschool success for students with disabilities, including self-determination (Benitez, Lattimore, & Wehmeyer, 2005; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003) and participation in transition planning (Halpern, Yovanoff, Doren, & Benz, 1995).”

“…have hypothesized to influence postschool outcomes is self-determination, and a small body of research has suggested a relationship between higher levels of self-determination when exiting school and positive adult outcomes (Powers et al., 2012; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997).”

“This in fact has been supported by research (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997) linking the self-determination of students with cognitive disabilities to more successful adult outcomes.”

“Self-advocacy is a concept and skill associated with selfdetermination (Field, 1996), and research has suggested that people who are self-determined have better postschool outcomes (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997).”

“Each of the focus groups identified many of the key component skills of self-determination as outlined by Wehmeyer and colleagues (Wehmeyer, 1999; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003 ) as being essential for their success, including problem-solving skills, learning about oneself (and one’s disability), goal setting, and self-mana…”

“Enhanced self-determination has been linked with positive transition outcomes, including higher levels of employment and independent living (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997), increased community participation (McGuire & McDonnell, 2008), success in postsecondary education…”

“…& Palmer, 2010) and transition outcomes, including more positive employment, recreation, and independent living outcomes (McGuire & McDonnell, 2008; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997), and more positive quality of life and life satisfaction (McDougall, Evans, & Baldwin, 2010;…”

“Enhanced self-determination has, in turn, been linked to more positive adult outcomes for students with disabilities (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997) and more positive perceptions of quality of life for adults with disabilities (Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1998).”

“This contradicts findings from the research literature that increasing student self-determination improves employability [21, 22].”

“…relationship (e.g., correlational evidence) between adolescent self-determination status at the time of graduation from high school and more positive employment, independent living, and community inclusion-related outcomes (Sower & Powers, 1995; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997).”

“…self-determination may play a role in improving student outcomes, including academic performance (Martin et al., 2003), employment status (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003), postsecondary participation (Field, Sarver, & Shaw, 2003), independence (Sowers & Powers, 1995), and quality of life…”

“For example, Wehmeyer and Palmer (2003) found that young adults with intellectual disabilities who were more self-determined were more likely to be employed and experience financial independence in the early years after high school.”

“…example, research has found self-determination to be positively related to both employment and independence in managing personal finances for young adults with learning and developmental disabilities at 1 and 3 years post–high school graduation (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997).”

“The role of self-determination needs to be investigated further, given that a large body of research suggests that self-determination contributes to positive outcomes for students with disabilities (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997, 1998).”

“Research has shown that students with disabilities who are more self-determined when they leave school achieve more positive adult outcomes (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997).”

“…the ability to identify and achieve one’s own set goals (Field and Hoffman 1994), has been found to predict better post-school outcomes in typically developing individuals as well as among students with other disabilities (e.g., Chambers et al. 2007; Deci and Ryan 2002; Wehmeyer and Palmer 2003).”

“Self-determination improves post-school outcomes for students with disabilities (e.g., Chambers et al., 2007; Solberg, Howard, Gresham & Carter, 2012; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003).”

“In addition to being associated with improved quality of life (Lachapelle et al., 2005; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1998), self-determination also may be a key factor influencing the extent to which youth attain important postschool outcomes (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997).”

“Second, the acquisition of component elements of self-determined behavior, such as problem-solving skills, enhances overall self-determination, which, in turn, has been linked to more positive adult outcomes (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997).”

“Others reported students who were more self-determined made significantly more advances in obtaining job benefits and earned more [40,43].”

“…(Esbensen, Bishop, Seltzer, Greenberg, & Taylor, 2010; Holwerda, van der Klink, de Boer, Groothoff, & Brouwer, 2013; Lawer, Brusilovskiy, Salzer, &Mandell, 2009; Martorell, Gutierrez-Recacha, Pereda, & Ayuso-Mateos, 2008; Schaller & Yang, 2005; Wehman et al., 2014; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003).”

“…of students with disabilities, including students with EBD (e.g., Cancio, West, & Young, 2004; Graham & Harris, 2003; Jolivette, Wehby, Canale, & Massey, 2001; Reid, Trout, & Schartz, 2005; Smith & Sugai, 2000; Swanson, 2001; Wehmeyer, Field, Doren, Jones, & Mason, 2004; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003).”

“Research has found that across disability categories, higher levels of self-determination predict more positive adult outcomes, including increased employment and independent living (Wehmeyer and Palmer 2003; Wehmeyer and Schwartz 1997), better educational outcomes (Fowler et al.”

“Wehmeyer and Palmer (2003) conducted a second follow-up study, examining the adult status of 94 young people with cognitive disabilities (mental retardation or learning disability) 1 and 3 years postgraduation.”

“Moreover, evidence of an empirical link between promoting self-determina- tion and the attainment of important academic, social, and behavioral outcomes is accumulating steadily (Lachapelle et al., 2005; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003).”

“Researchers have suggested that youth who are more self-determined when leaving high school experience more positive adult outcomes than youth who are less self-determined (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997).”

“(Lachapelle et al., 2005; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003).”

“Although research exists demonstrating a positive relationship between an individual’s level of self-determination and adult outcomes (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997), no adult outcome studies were found relative to an individual’s level of self-advo- cacy skills.”

“Researchers have established a link between self-determination and postschool outcomes (Shogren, Wehmeyer, Palmer, Rifenbark, & Little, 2015; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997), including quality of life outcomes (Lachapelle et al., 2005).”

“Research has indicated that providing instruction and opportunities in self-determination may improve the postschool outcomes of students with disabilities (Field, Sarver, & Shaw, 2003; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003).”

“In another study, adults who exercised more self-determination were more likely to live independently, have greater financial independence, be employed at higher paying jobs, and make greater advances in their employment (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003).”

“…and other valued outcomes, including quality of life (Lachapelle et al., 2005; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1998) and postschool outcomes (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997); differences between the levels of self-determination of students with and without disabilities…”

“…have found that adults with disabilities who exercised higher levels of self-determination were more likely to live independently, have greater financial independence, be employed at higher paying jobs, and be promoted more frequently in their employment positions (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003).”

“These studies have shown that various environmental factors can contribute to the opportunities to make choices regarding such issues as employment and residential settings (Jahoda et al., 2008; Nota et al., 2007; Wehmeyer and Palmer, 2003).”

“…and transition outcomes, including more positive employment and independent living (Martorell, Gutierrez-Rechacha, Pereda, & Ayuso-Mateos, 2008; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997) and recreation and leisure outcomes (McGuire & McDonnell, 2008), and more positive quality of…”

“In other studies, higher levels of self-determination have been associated with better outcomes across areas including quality of life, employment status, access to health care, financial independence, and independent living (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003).”

“... examined the contribution of self-determination to improved quality of life and personal satisfaction (Lachappelle et al. 2005; Nota and Soresi 2000; Soresi et al. 2003; Wehmeyer and Schwartz 1998) for people with disabilities and found that students with disabilities who leave school more self-determined individu…”

“College students with learning disabilities who had higher selfdetermination scores obtained better grades than students with lower scores (Sarver, 2000) and higher employment rates (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003).”

“Indeed, the extent to which youth demonstrate selfdetermination may have a substantial impact on their later life outcomes (e.g., Hadre & Reeve, 2003; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997, 1998).”

“…to regulate and assume more responsibility for their own learning, facilitates their involvement and engagement in the general education curriculum (Palmer, Wehmeyer, Gipson, & Agran, 2004), and leads to more positive adult outcomes (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997).”

“More than just a social movement, however, promoting the self‐determination of youth and adults with disabilities has been linked to positive outcomes, such as higher work and community inclusion (Wehmeyer and Palmer 2003 ).”

“…these processes are impaired in ASD and have been shown important in improving educational and socioemotional outcomes for students with a range of disabilities (e.g., Corbett, Constantine, Hendren, Rocke, & Ozonoff, 2009; Hendricks &Wehman, 2009; Mazefsky et al., 2013; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003).”

“Self-determination has been identified as a key dimension of individual quality of life (Lachapelle et al., 2005; Schalock, 2000) and as a key predictor of valued life outcomes in the domains of independent living and employment (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997).”

“…academic performance (Martin et al., 2003), greater class participation (Gilberts, Agran, Hughes, & Wehmeyer, 2001), improved employment status (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003), increased postsecondary involvement (Field, Sarver, & Shaw, 2003), expanded independence (Sowers & Powers, 1995), and…”

“…Gutierrez-Recacha, Perda, & Ayuso-Mateos, 2008; Nota et al., 2007; Shogren, Lopez, Wehmeyer, Little, & Pressgrove, 2006; Test et al., 2009; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schalock, 2001; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1998); and (c) the relationship between self-determination theory and…”

“Particularly, individuals are self-determined if they act autonomously, their behaviours are self-regulated; they initiate and respond to the events in a psychologically empowered manner and act in a self-realizing manner (Wehmeyer et al. 2003; Wehmeyer and Palmer 2003).”

“However, since research also indicates that self-determination is an important skill for enhancing an individual’s quality of life (e.g., Benz et al., 1997; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003), it is important to focus on interventions that help student learn both academic and self-determination skills.”

“One method to increase independence for students with disabilities is to teach self-determination skills (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003).”

“Wehmeyer and Palmer (2002) found that students with ID in the United States who reported a greater sense of self-determination achieved better outcomes in employment, independent living, financial independence, and access to health resources.”

“…makers have recognized that the construct of self-determination is an exemplary educational practice that improves the postschool outcomes of students with disabilities (Algozzine, Browder, Karvonen, Test, & Wood, 2001; Field, Martin, Miller, Ward, & Wehmeyer, 1998b; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003).”

“…theory of selfdetermination (Wehmeyer, 2001) and has been used to document the importance of selfdetermination for positive adult outcomes (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997) and student involvement in educational planning (Cross et al., 1999; Zhang, 2001) for youth with…”

“…disabilities, can become more self-determined and, if they do so, that they experience more positive adult outcomes, including an enhanced quality of life (Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1998), greater independence, and more positive employment outcomes (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997).”

“…Soukup, & Palmer, 2010) or adult outcomes, including employment and independent living (Martorell, Gutierrez-Recacha, Pereda, & Ayuso-Mateos, 2008; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997) and more positive quality of life and life satisfaction (Lachapelle et al., 2005; McDougall,…”

“Developing a person’s sense of agency and control can increase coping skills, promote selfdetermination, and support the ability to negotiate ongoing job challenges [62, 78, 79, 81].”

“These general outcomes are predicted and discussed throughout the self-determination literature (Wehmeyer, 1998; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003).”

“Research in the USA has begun to investigate the role of self-determination in successful transition into adulthood for young people with intellectual disabilities (Wehmeyer & Garner 2003; Wehmeyer & Palmer 2003).”

“As reported by Wehmeyer and Palmer (2003) and Wehmeyer and Schwartz (1997), higher self-determination scores were correlated with more positive post-school outcomes for students with intellectual disabilities.”

“To measure adult outcomes, Shogren and colleagues used the Outcome Survey, a survey adapted from Wehmeyer and Schwartz (1997) and Wehmeyer and Palmer (2003), the National Consumer Survey (Jaskulski, Metzler, & Zierman, 1990), and the National Longitudinal Survey (Wagner, D’Amico, Marder, Newman, &…”

“…(Cobb, Lehmann, Newman-Gonchar, & Alwell, 2009; Test et al., 2009) and demonstrated linkages between enhanced self-determination and positive postschool outcomes (Powers et al., 2012; Shogren, Wehmeyer, Palmer, Rifenbark, & Little, 2012; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997).”

“Wehmeyer and Palmer (2003) conducted another follow-up study, examining the adult outcomes of 94 students with learning disabilities and mental retardation in the United States 1–3 years postgraduation.”

“Wehmeyer and his colleagues performed two follow-along studies (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997) and found that students who left school as selfdetermined young people had more positive adult outcomes than their peers who were not self-determined in a number of areas, even though…”

“Wehmeyer and Palmer (2003) found a positive relation be-tween self-determination and post-school outcomes (e.g., employment and independent living) for students with intellectual and learning disabilities.”

“…effective decision makers and causal agents in their own lives; and of becoming more capable of self-sufficiency and living quality lives in adulthood (Devlin, 2008; Martin, Van Dycke, D’Ottavio, & Nickerson, 2007; Shogren, Wehmeyer, Buchanan, & Lopez, 2006; Skouge et al.; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003).”

“Selfdetermination has been linked with positive adult outcomes for individuals with disabilities, including those with extensive support needs (e.g., Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1998).”

“Students with higher levels of self-determination have been found to have a higher quality of life and better adult outcomes (Howlin, Goode, & Hutton, 2002; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003 ).”

“…not guarantee that students will develop the necessary self-determination skills (e.g., Grigal et al., 2003; Halpern, 1994; Wehmeyer & Lawrence, 1995; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003) or that families and students will be equal or valued partners in the collaboration process (e.g., Blue-Banning et al.,…”

“Contrary to existing literature (Martorell, Gutierrez-Recacha, Pereda, & Ayuso-Mateos, 2008; Test et al., 2009; Shogren et al., in press; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003), our findings did not support claims that self-determination is associated with greater employment outcomes.”