Spiraling Out of Control: Stress Generation and Subsequent Rumination Mediate the Link Between Poorer Cognitive Control and Internalizing Psychopathology

Snyder, Hannah R.; Hankin, Benjamin L.

doi:10.1177/2167702616633157

Cited by 75Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesNeural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

Spiraling Out of Control: Stress Generation and Subsequent Rumination Mediate the Link Between Poorer Cognitive Control and Internalizing Psychopathology

Open access

Snyder, Hannah R., Hankin, Benjamin L.·2016·Clinical Psychological Science

DOI 10.1177/2167702616633157PMC PMC5102509

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Abstract

Poor cognitive control is associated with nearly every mental disorder and has been proposed as a transdiagnostic risk factor for psychopathology, including depression and anxiety. What specific mechanisms might cause individuals with poor cognitive control to experience higher levels of psychopathology? The current research tests a new process model linking poor cognitive control to depression and anxiety symptoms via increased dependent stress (i.e., self-generated stressors) and subsequent rumination. This model was supported across two studies in youth during the key period for emergence of internalizing psychopathology. Study 1 provides longitudinal evidence for prospective prediction of change in symptoms. Study 2 confirms this model using well-established executive function tasks in a cross-sectional study. These findings have potential implications for understanding why cognitive control impairments may be broadly associated with psychopathology and suggest that interventions to prevent stress generation might be effective in preventing negative consequences of poor cognitive control.

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Claims the paper makes

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Findingown data
The model linking poor cognitive control to depression and anxiety via dependent stress and rumination was supported across two studies in youth.
“This model was supported across two studies in youth during the key period for emergence of internalizing psychopathology.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingnone given
Study 1 provides longitudinal evidence for prospective prediction of change in symptoms.
“Study 1 provides longitudinal evidence for prospective prediction of change in symptoms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
Study 2 confirms the model using well-established executive function tasks in a cross-sectional study.
“Study 2 confirms this model using well-established executive function tasks in a cross-sectional study.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
Self-reported cognitive control (EC) predicted prospective change in symptoms of depression and anxiety.
“Self-reported cognitive control (EC) predicted prospective change in symptoms of depression and anxiety”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
For the anxiety model, there was a significant indirect path from EC to dependent stress to rumination to anxiety (p=.026).
“there were significant indirect paths from EC to dependent stress to rumination to depression/anxiety (p=.024 depression, p=.026 anxiety).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

Findingown data
For the anxiety model, there was a significant indirect path from EC to dependent stress to anxiety (p=.020).
“There was also a significant indirect path from EC to dependent stress to depression/anxiety (p=.013 depression, p=.020 anxiety).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
Rumination at T3 predicted higher depression and anxiety at T4, controlling for baseline depression and anxiety, in their respective models.
“Rumination at T3 significantly predicted higher depression and anxiety at T4, controlling for depression and anxiety at T1, in their respective models.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
T3 rumination significantly predicted an increase in T4 depression, controlling for T1 depression.
“Both dependent stress at T2 and rumination at T3 significantly predicted an increase in depression and anxiety at T4, controlling for depression and anxiety at T1, in their respective models.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
Controlling for age and gender, lower T1 EC predicted higher T4 anxiety averaged from 21-36 months (β=−.175, t(291)=−3.04, p=.003).
“and anxiety (β=−.175, t(291)=−3.04, p=.003), such that lower levels of EC at baseline were associated with higher levels of symptoms of depression and anxiety averaged from 21–36 months.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
T2 dependent stress significantly predicted an increase in T4 anxiety, controlling for T1 anxiety.
“Both dependent stress at T2 and rumination at T3 significantly predicted an increase in depression and anxiety at T4, controlling for depression and anxiety at T1, in their respective models.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
The associations between self-reported cognitive control and symptoms were longitudinally mediated by stress generation and rumination.
“and these associations were longitudinally mediated by stress generation (whether dependent stress was assessed by a contextual stress interview or self-report) and rumination.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
Dependent stress at T2 predicted higher rumination at T3, controlling for baseline rumination.
“Dependent stress at T2 in turn predicted higher levels of rumination at T3, controlling for rumination at baseline.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
The direct effect of EC on anxiety was not significant (p=.5) in the mediation model.
“The direct effect of EC on depression remained marginal (p=.087), while the direct effect of EC on anxiety was not significant in the mediation model (p=.5).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
T3 rumination significantly predicted an increase in T4 anxiety, controlling for T1 anxiety.
“Both dependent stress at T2 and rumination at T3 significantly predicted an increase in depression and anxiety at T4, controlling for depression and anxiety at T1, in their respective models.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
There was a significant indirect path from EC to dependent stress to rumination to depression and to anxiety (p=.005 for both).
“Critically, for both the depression and anxiety models, there was a significant indirect paths from EC to dependent stress to rumination to depression/anxiety (p=.005 depression, p=.005 anxiety).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
For the depression model, there was a significant indirect path from EC to dependent stress to depression (p=.013).
“There was also a significant indirect path from EC to dependent stress to depression/anxiety (p=.013 depression, p=.020 anxiety).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
The indirect path from EC to rumination to depression was not significant (p=.5).
“The indirect path from EC to rumination to depression/anxiety was not significant in either model (p=.5 depression, p=.5 anxiety).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Findingown data
In both the depression and anxiety models, lower effortful control at T1 predicted higher YLSI chronic dependent stress at T2.
“In both models, EC at T1 significantly predicted YLSI chronic dependent stress at T2, such that lower EC predicted higher levels of stress.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
T2 dependent stress significantly predicted an increase in T4 depression, controlling for T1 depression.
“Both dependent stress at T2 and rumination at T3 significantly predicted an increase in depression and anxiety at T4, controlling for depression and anxiety at T1, in their respective models.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
T2 dependent stress significantly predicted an increase in T3 rumination, controlling for T1 rumination.
“Dependent stress at T2 in turn significantly predicted an increase in rumination at T3, controlling for rumination at T1.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
The direct effect of EC on depression remained marginal (p=.087) in the mediation model.
“The direct effect of EC on depression remained marginal (p=.087), while the direct effect of EC on anxiety was not significant in the mediation model (p=.5).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Findingown data
The indirect path from EC to rumination to anxiety was not significant (p=.5).
“The indirect path from EC to rumination to depression/anxiety was not significant in either model (p=.5 depression, p=.5 anxiety).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Findingown data
Controlling for age and gender, lower T1 EC predicted higher T4 depression averaged from 21-36 months (β=−.310, t(291)=−5.60, p<.001).
“T1 EC significantly predicted T4 depression (β=−.310, t(291)=−5.60, p<.001)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
For the depression model, there was a significant indirect path from EC to dependent stress to rumination to depression (p=.024).
“there were significant indirect paths from EC to dependent stress to rumination to depression/anxiety (p=.024 depression, p=.026 anxiety).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
In ALEQ models, lower T1 EC predicted more T2 dependent stressful life events, controlling for T1 ALEQ dependent stress.
“EC at T1 significantly predicted ALEQ dependent stress at T2, controlling for ALEQ dependent stress at T1, such that lower EC predicted more dependent stressful life events.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
There was no significant main effect of EF on anxiety controlling for age (β=−.046, t(139)=−0.52, p=.6).
“However, there was no significant main effect of EF on anxiety controlling for age (β=−.046, t(139)=−0.52, p=.6).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
The results replicated across both self-report (ALEQ) and interview-based (YLSI) measures of stress.
“Critically, these results replicated across both self-report (ALEQ) and interview based (YLSI) measures of stress.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
Rumination did not directly mediate the link between poor cognitive control and internalizing psychopathology.
“In contrast, rumination did not directly mediate the link between poor cognitive control and internalizing psychopathology, challenging models that posited a key role for rumination in directly mediating associations between cognitive control and internalizing psychopathology.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
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Study 1 found that self-reported cognitive control prospectively predicted both self-report and interview-based measures of dependent stress over time.
“Study 1 found that self-reported cognitive control prospectively predicted both self-report and interview based measures of dependent stress over time.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
There was a significant EF x age interaction for anxiety, such that the effect of EF on anxiety increased with age (β=−.168, t(138)=−2.07, p=.041).
“For anxiety, there was a significant EF x age interaction, such that the effect of EF on anxiety increased with age (β=−.168, t(138)=−2.07, p=.041).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
In Study 2 total effects models, poorer EF was marginally associated with higher depression, controlling for age (β=−.174, t(139)=−1.94, p=.055).
“Poorer EF was marginally associated with higher depression, controlling for age (β=−.174, t(139)=−1.94, p=.055).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
In both depression and anxiety moderated mediation models, there was a significant age x EF interaction predicting dependent stress, such that participants with poorer EF reported more dependent stressors, and this effect increased with age.
“In both the depression and anxiety model, there was a significant age x EF interaction predicting dependent stress, such that participants with poorer EF reported experiencing more dependent stressors, and this effect increased with age.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
The indirect path from EC to rumination to depression/anxiety was not significant in either model (p=.9).
“The indirect path from EC to rumination to depression/anxiety was not significant in either model (p=.9 depression, p=.9 anxiety).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Findingown data
Support was not found for this reversed pathway for anxiety.
“Support was not found for this reversed pathway for anxiety (Table S12), consistent with previous evidence that depressive symptoms play a stronger role in stress generation than anxious symptoms (e.g., Connolly et al., 2010; but see Shapero et al., 2013 for independent effects of depression and anxiety symptoms on stress generation).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
Study 2 suggests that the link between EF task performance and stress increases with age from early adolescence to young adulthood.
“In addition, Study 2 suggests that the link between EF task performance and stress increases with age from early adolescence to young adulthood, a topic we return to in Future Directions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Findingown data
As in Study 1, there was a significant pathway from poorer cognitive control (as assessed with EF task performance) to dependent stress, to rumination, to depression and anxiety symptoms.
“As in Study 1, there was a significant pathway from poorer cognitive control (as assessed with EF task performance) to dependent stress, to rumination, to depression and anxiety symptoms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
In most models, there were also effects of dependent stress directly on internalizing symptoms, independent of the significant indirect pathway through rumination.
“In most models, there were also effects of dependent stress directly on internalizing symptoms, independent of the significant indirect pathway through rumination.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
There was a significant EF x age interaction for depression, such that the effect of EF on depression increased with age (β=−.235, t(138)=−2.89, p=.004).
“Including age as a moderator, rather than covariate, there was a significant EF x age interaction, such that the effect of EF on depression increased with age (β=−.235, t(138)=−2.89, p=.004).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
There were significant indirect paths from EF to dependent stress to depression/anxiety (p=.031 depression, p=.013 anxiety).
“There were also significant indirect paths from EF to dependent stress to depression/anxiety (p=.031 depression, p=.013 anxiety).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingnone given
The current research demonstrates that individuals with poor cognitive control experience more dependent stressors.
“Specifically, the current research demonstrates that individuals with poor cognitive control experience more dependent stressors.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
Individuals with poorer self-reported cognitive control experienced more dependent stress over 18 months.
“individuals with poorer self-reported cognitive control experienced more dependent stress over 18 months.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
For both depression and anxiety models, there were significant indirect paths from EF to dependent stress to rumination to depression/anxiety (p=.016 depression, p=.013 anxiety).
“Critically, for both the depression and anxiety models, there were significant indirect paths from EF to dependent stress to rumination to depression/anxiety (p=.016 depression, p=.013 anxiety).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
In both models, there was a significant effect of dependent stress on rumination, such that higher dependent stress reported higher rumination.
“In both models, there was a significant effect of dependent stress on rumination, such that participants reporting higher levels of dependent stress reported higher levels of rumination.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
The indirect path from EF to rumination to depression/anxiety was not significant in either model (p=.9).
“The indirect path from EF to rumination to depression/anxiety was not significant in either model (p=.9 depression, p=.9 anxiety).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Findingown data
In Study 2, the association between poor executive function and stress generation became stronger as age increased.
“Indeed, in Study 2, the relationship between poor EF and stress generation increased with age.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
The current research indicates that broad impairments in cognitive control are related to rumination only indirectly, through stress generation.
“the current research suggests that broad impairments in cognitive control are associated with rumination only indirectly through stress generation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
The authors' research proposed and found support for a novel process model in which poor cognitive control in youth leads to internalizing psychopathology, specifically depression and anxiety symptoms, through the generation of more dependent stressful life events and subsequent rumination.
“The current research proposed and found support for a novel process model linking poor cognitive control to internalizing psychopathology (depression and anxiety symptoms) in youth via generation of more dependent stressful life events and subsequent rumination.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Findingown data
The current studies show that the same risk pathways link poor performance on a composite measure of executive function tasks to both depressive and anxiety symptoms.
“The current studies show that the same risk pathways link poor performance on a composite measure of EF tasks to both depressive and anxiety symptoms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Premisecitation
Difficulty preventing entry or removing negative information from working memory, or a narrow scope of attention, leads to difficulty disengaging from unwanted negative thoughts and thus rumination.
“difficulty preventing the entry of, and/or removing, negative information from working memory (e.g., for review see Gotlib & Joorman, 2010; Koster, De Lissnyder, Derakshan, & De Raedt, 2011), or alternatively a narrow scope of attention (for review see Whitmer & Gotlib, 2013), leads to difficulty disengaging from unwanted negative thoughts, and thus rumination.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
- cites Gotlib & Joorman, 2010
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- cites Koster et al., 2011
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- cites Whitmer & Gotlib, 2013
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Premisecitation
Hierarchical models consistently show depression and anxiety are best conceptualized as nested within a latent internalizing psychopathology dimension.
“hierarchical models of psychopathology have consistently demonstrated that depression and anxiety are best conceptualized as nested within a latent internalizing psychopathology dimension (e.g., see Carragher, Krueger, Eaton, & Slade, 2015 for review).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Carragher, Krueger, Eaton, & Slade, 2015
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Premisecitation
Depression and anxiety share many risk factors, including impaired cognitive control.
“they share many risk factors in common, including impaired cognitive control (e.g., for review see Snyder et al., 2015).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Snyder et al., 2015
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Premisecitation
Trait rumination is associated with impaired performance on behavioral tasks requiring removal of no longer relevant negative information from working memory.
“trait rumination is associated with impaired performance on behavioral tasks that require removing no longer relevant negative information from working memory (e.g., Joormann & Gotlib, 2008; Joormann, Nee, Berman, Jonides, & Gotlib, 2010; Whitmer & Banich, 2007; Zetsche, D’Avanzato, & Joormann, 2012).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
- cites Joormann & Gotlib, 2008
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- cites Joormann et al., 2010
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- cites Whitmer & Banich, 2007
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Premisecitation
Individuals with depression and anxiety report more cognitive control difficulties in daily life.
“individuals with depression and anxiety report more cognitive control difficulties in daily life (e.g., Letkiewicz et al., 2014; Muris & Ollendick, 2005; van Oort, Greaves Lord, Ormel, Verhulst, & Huizink, 2011)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
- cites Letkiewicz et al., 2014
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- cites Muris & Ollendick, 2005
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- cites van Oort et al., 2011
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Premisecitation
Only one study to date has directly tested rumination as a mediator between poor cognitive control and psychopathology.
“To our knowledge only one study to date has directly tested the role of rumination as a mediator between poor cognitive control and psychopathology.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Demeyer et al., 2012
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Premisecitation
Depression and anxiety frequently co-occur in adolescents.
“Depression and anxiety, both at the symptom and syndrome level, frequently co-occur in adolescents (e.g., for review see Cummings, Caporino, & Kendall, 2014)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Cummings, Caporino, & Kendall, 2014
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Premisecitation
§ Spiraling out of control: Stress generation and subsequent rumination mediate the link between poorer cognitive control and internalizing psychopathology
Cognitive control impairments are an important aspect of psychopathology.
“Cognitive control impairments are now widely acknowledged as an important aspect of psychopathology, and are important contributors to impairments in social, occupational and educational functioning (e.g., McIntyre et al., 2013).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites McIntyre et al., 2013
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Premisecitation
Poor cognitive control as assessed by self-report measures prospectively predicts increased depression and internalizing symptoms more broadly.
“there is some emerging evidence that poor cognitive control, as assessed by self-report measures, prospectively predicts increased depression (Letkiewicz et al., 2014) and internalizing symptoms more broadly (Eisenberg, Valiente, & Spinrad, 2009; Oldehinkel, Hartman, Ferdinand, Verhulst, & Ormel, 2007).”
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- cites Letkiewicz et al., 2014
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- cites Eisenberg, Valiente, & Spinrad, 2009
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- cites Oldehinkel et al., 2007
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Premisecitation
Individuals with depression and anxiety have impaired performance on executive function tasks.
“and have impaired performance on executive function tasks (e.g., Berggren & Derakshan, 2013; Derakshan & Eysenck, 2009; Owens, Koster, & Derakshan, 2012; Snyder, 2013; Snyder et al., 2010).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
- cites Berggren & Derakshan, 2013
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- cites Derakshan & Eysenck, 2009
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- cites Owens, Koster, & Derakshan, 2012
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Study design and conductown data
CDI internal consistency was good (α > .82 for all time points).
“internal consistency was good (α > .82 for all time points).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Premisecitation
Dependent stressors increase risk for psychopathology, including depression and anxiety.
“These dependent stressors in turn increase risk for psychopathology, including depression and anxiety (e.g., Grant et al., 2014; Hammen, 2005; Hankin & Abramson, 2001).”
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- cites Grant et al., 2014
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- cites Hammen, 2005
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- cites Hankin & Abramson, 2001
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Premisecitation
Of few longitudinal studies, cognitive control prospectively predicted rumination in one but not another.
“Of those few studies that did investigate associations longitudinally, cognitive control prospectively predicted rumination in one (Zetsche & Joormann, 2011), but not another (Connolly et al., 2014).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- cites Zetsche & Joormann, 2011
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- cites Connolly et al., 2014
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Premisecitation
Correlational studies found poor cognitive control associated with poor functioning across multiple domains, including poor school functioning and more interpersonal problems, often considered dependent stressors.
“First, correlational studies have found that poor cognitive control is associated with poor functioning across multiple domains, including poor school functioning (e.g., Jacobson, Williford, & Pianta, 2011; Liew, 2012; Martel et al., 2007) and more interpersonal problems (e.g., Liew, 2012; Martel et al., 2007; Ogilvie, Stewart, Chan, & Shum, 2011), which are often considered to be dependent stress”
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- cites Jacobson, Williford, & Pianta, 2011
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- cites Liew, 2012
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- cites Martel et al., 2007
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Study design and conductown data
CRSQ internal consistency was good (α > .84 for both time points).
“internal consistency was good (α > .84 for both time points).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Interpretationreasoning
Some process in addition to rumination is likely involved in translating poor cognitive control to increased psychopathology.
“This suggests that some process, in addition to rumination, is likely involved in translating poor cognitive control to increased psychopathology.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Interpretationcitation
Some indirect evidence suggests poor cognitive control might lead to experiencing more dependent stressful events.
“However, some indirect evidence suggests that poor cognitive control might lead to experiencing more dependent stressful events.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Premisecitation
Internalizing psychopathology is associated with broad impairments in cognitive control, including aspects that appear unimpaired or enhanced in ruminators.
“However, internalizing psychopathology is associated with broad impairments in cognitive control, including those aspects of cognitive control that appear to be unimpaired or enhanced in ruminators (e.g., for review see Hankin et al., 2015).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Hankin et al., 2015
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Premisecitation
Stress is a strong predictor of rumination.
“Specifically, it is well established that stress is a strong predictor of rumination (e.g., Smith & Alloy, 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Smith & Alloy, 2009
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Interpretationreasoning
Rumination cannot explain why impairments in other aspects of cognitive control are associated with psychopathology.
“Thus, while rumination may directly mediate links between specific aspects of cognitive control and psychopathology, it cannot explain why impairments in other aspects of cognitive control are associated with psychopathology.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Premisecitation
Rumination mediates the association between stress and internalizing symptoms.
“Indeed, rumination has been found to mediate the association between stress and internalizing symptoms (Michl et al., 2013).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Michl et al., 2013
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Premisecitation
Stress generation mediates the link between several risk factors and internalizing psychopathology in adolescents and young adults.
“It is well established that stress generation mediates the link between several risk factors–including negative cognitive style (Hamilton et al., 2013), negative emotionality (Hankin, 2010), rumination and corumination (Hankin, Stone, & Wright, 2010; McLaughlin & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2012) and prior levels of emotional distress (Shapero, Hankin, & Barrocas, 2013)–and internalizing psychopathology in”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
- cites Hamilton et al., 2013
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- cites Hankin, 2010
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- cites Hankin, Stone, & Wright, 2010
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Study design and conductnone given
All measures have established good reliability and validity, as detailed in Supplemental Materials.
“All measures have established good reliability and validity, as detailed in Supplemental Materials.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Premisecitation
Trait ruminators appear better at stably maintaining goals in working memory.
“Indeed, trait ruminators appear to be better at stably maintaining goals in working memory (Altamirano, Miyake, & Whitmer, 2010; Zetsche & Joormann, 2011).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- cites Altamirano, Miyake, & Whitmer, 2010
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- cites Zetsche & Joormann, 2011
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Premisecitation
A recent longitudinal study found adolescents' self-reported cognitive control at baseline prospectively predicted daily stressful life events over a two-week follow-up, with poorer cognitive control reporting more stressors.
“Second, a recent longitudinal study found that adolescents’ self-reported cognitive control at baseline prospectively predicted daily stressful life events over a two-week follow-up period, such that adolescents with poorer cognitive control reported experiencing more stressors (Galla & Wood, 2014).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Galla & Wood, 2014
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Interpretationown data
These findings challenge models that posited a key role for rumination in directly mediating associations between cognitive control and internalizing psychopathology.
“challenging models that posited a key role for rumination in directly mediating associations between cognitive control and internalizing psychopathology.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Interpretationreasoning
While Study 2 was cross-sectional, these findings conceptually replicate the longitudinal findings from Study 1 using different methods and timeframes.
“While Study 2 was cross-sectional, these findings conceptually replicate the longitudinal findings from Study 1 using different methods and timeframes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Interpretationcitation
Mediation by stress generation could potentially explain why cognitive control impairments are so broadly associated with psychopathology, since stress is a transdiagnostic risk factor.
“Mediation by stress generation could potentially explain why cognitive control impairments are so broadly associated with psychopathology (Buckholtz & Meyer-Lindenberg, 2012; Goschke, 2014; Snyder et al., 2015), since stress is a transdiagnostic risk factor (e.g., Grant et al., 2014).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
- cites Buckholtz & Meyer-Lindenberg, 2012
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- cites Goschke, 2014
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- cites Snyder et al., 2015
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Premisecitation
Previous evidence indicates that depressive symptoms play a stronger role in stress generation than anxious symptoms.
“consistent with previous evidence that depressive symptoms play a stronger role in stress generation than anxious symptoms (e.g., Connolly et al., 2010; but see Shapero et al., 2013 for independent effects of depression and anxiety symptoms on stress generation).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- cites Connolly et al., 2010
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- cites Shapero et al., 2013
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Interpretationown data
Across two studies, the authors found support for their hypothesized process model linking poorer cognitive control to depression and anxiety symptoms in youth via generation of more dependent stressful life events and subsequent rumination.
“Across two studies, we found support for our hypothesized process model linking poorer cognitive control to depression and anxiety symptoms in youth via generation of more dependent stressful life events and subsequent rumination.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Premisecitation
A composite measure of common EF ability is a more accurate and reliable measure of EF than single tasks because non-executive task requirements specific to each task have less influence.
“Thus, we selected tasks spanning different specific EF components and aggregated them to form a composite measure of common EF ability that is a more accurate and reliable measure of EF than single tasks, because the non-executive task requirements specific to each task (e.g.. color processing and articulation speed in the Stroop task, visuospatial processing in the spatial span task) have less in”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- cites Miyake et al., 2000
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- cites Snyder et al., 2015
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Interpretationcitation
Stress and cognitive control may bi-directionally affect one another.
“In addition, stress and cognitive control may bi-directionally affect one another.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Interpretationcitation
The existence of common risk pathways for anxiety and depression, such as those identified in the current study, may be one source of comorbidity between them.
“Furthermore, the existence of common risk pathways for anxiety and depression, such as those identified in the current study, may be one source of comorbidity between them (e.g., Cummings et al., 2014).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Cummings et al., 2014
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Interpretationown data
Study 1 supported the hypothesized multiple-mediating mechanisms process model.
“Study 1 supported the hypothesized multiple-mediating mechanisms process model.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Premisecitation
Recent evidence suggests that common EF, rather than specific EF components, may be the primary predictor of psychopathology.
“Recent evidence suggests that common EF, rather than specific EF components (e.g., shifting, updating) may be the primary predictor of psychopathology (e.g., Snyder et al., 2015; Young et al., 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- cites Snyder et al., 2015
  Not checked in the free run.
- cites Young et al., 2009
  Not checked in the free run.
Interpretationcitation
Effortful control questionnaires and executive function task performance should not be assumed to be measuring precisely the same constructs.
“Thus, EC questionnaires and EF task performance should not be assumed to be measuring precisely the same constructs.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Interpretationown data
Despite potential differences in constructs assessed by self-report questionnaire versus EF task measures, these different ways of conceptualizing and measuring cognitive control yielded strikingly convergent evidence for the same risk pathways.
“Thus, despite potential differences in the constructs assessed by self-report questionnaire versus EF task measures of cognitive control, in this case these different ways of conceptualizing and measuring cognitive control yielded strikingly convergent evidence for the same risk pathways.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Study design and conductreasoning
Study 1 used effortful control measures of cognitive control rather than assessing executive function task performance.
“One potential limitation of Study 1 is that it used EC measures of cognitive control, rather than assessing EF task performance.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Interpretationreasoning
Study 1 provided a strong test of longitudinal mediation, demonstrating that the proposed process pathway predicts change in symptoms over time, controlling for baseline levels of symptoms.
“Thus, Study 1 provided a strong test of longitudinal mediation, demonstrating that the proposed process pathway predicts change in symptoms over time, controlling for baseline levels of symptoms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Interpretationreasoning
Stress generation related to poor cognitive control may increase risk for internalizing psychopathology via multiple final mediating mechanisms.
“Thus, stress generation related to poor cognitive control may increase risk for internalizing psychopathology via multiple final mediating mechanisms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Interpretationown data
Cognitive control has indirect effects on rumination via dependent stress generation.
“Instead cognitive control has indirect effects on rumination via dependent stress generation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Interpretationreasoning
The role of poor cognitive control in stress generation could potentially explain why cognitive control impairments are so broadly associated with psychopathology.
“the role of poor cognitive control in stress generation could potentially explain why cognitive control impairments are so broadly associated with psychopathology (Buckholtz & Meyer-Lindenberg, 2012; Goschke, 2014; Hankin et al., 2015).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
- cites Buckholtz & Meyer-Lindenberg, 2012
  Not checked in the free run.
- cites Goschke, 2014
  Not checked in the free run.
- cites Hankin et al., 2015
  Not checked in the free run.
Premisecitation
Previous studies of cognitive control and rumination, including the only previous mediation analysis, have primarily found links between rumination and specific aspects of cognitive control over negative information.
“Importantly, previous studies of cognitive control and rumination, including the only previous mediation analysis (Demeyer et al., 2012), have primarily found links between rumination and specific aspects of cognitive control over negative information.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Demeyer et al., 2012
  Not checked in the free run.
Interpretationown data
It is likely that the risk pathways between cognitive control and psychopathology change across development.
“Thus, it is likely that risk pathways between cognitive control and psychopathology change with development.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Study design and conductreasoning
The current research cannot distinguish whether the association between executive function and psychopathology reflects unique latent internalizing psychopathology, the general psychopathology factor, or both.
“However, the current research cannot differentiate these important hypotheses.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Premisecitation
Other types of cognitive control are unimpaired or even enhanced in ruminators.
“Other types of cognitive control are unimpaired or even enhanced in ruminators (for review see Whitmer & Gotlib, 2013).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Whitmer & Gotlib, 2013
  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims. 42
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 41

May combine two claims.
Findingown data
There was a significant indirect path from EC to dependent stress to depression (p=.002) but not to anxiety (p=.216).
“There was also a significant indirect path from EC to dependent stress to depression (p=.002) but not anxiety (p=.216).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
May combine two claims.
Findingown data
Chronic dependent stress at T2 directly predicted T4 depression, but its effect on anxiety did not reach significance.
“Chronic dependent stress at T2 also directly predicted T4 depression, but this effect did not reach significance for not anxiety.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
May combine two claims.
Findingown data
In their respective models, there were significant effects of both dependent stress and rumination on depression and anxiety, such that more dependent stressors and higher rumination reported higher depression and anxiety symptoms.
“In their respective models, there were significant effects of both dependent stress and rumination on depression and anxiety, such that participants who reported more dependent stressors and higher levels of rumination reported higher levels of depression and anxiety symptoms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
May combine two claims.
Findingown data
Self-reported cognitive control prospectively predicted anxiety and depression symptoms, and this effect was mediated by dependent stress and subsequent rumination.
“Self-reported cognitive control prospectively predicted anxiety and depression symptoms, and this effect was mediated by dependent stress and subsequent rumination.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
May combine two claims.
Findingown data
The direct effect of EC on depression remained marginal (p=.062), and the direct effect of EC on anxiety was not significant (p=.9) in the mediation model.
“The direct effect of EC on depression remained marginal (p=.062), while the direct effect of EC on anxiety was not significant in the mediation model (p=.9).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
May combine two claims.
Findingown data
A confirmatory factor analysis of Study 2 data demonstrated that all EF tasks loaded significantly onto a common factor, with adequate model fit, justifying creation of a composite score.
“a confirmatory factor analysis of Study 2 data demonstrated that all EF tasks loaded significantly onto a common factor, with adequate model fit, justifying creation of a composite score.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
May combine two claims.
Findingown data
The direct effects of EF x Age on depression (p=.2) and anxiety (p=.7) were not significant in the mediation model.
“The direct effects of EF x Age on depression (p=.2), and anxiety (p=.7) were not significant in the mediation model.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
May combine two claims.
Findingown data
For depression, there was a significant indirect pathway from depression to increased dependent stress to decreased effortful control (the pathway through rumination did not reach significance).
“For depression, there was a significant indirect pathway from depression to increased dependent stress to decreased effortful control (the pathway through rumination did not reach significance; Table S11).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
May combine two claims.
Findingown data
Dependent stress prospectively predicted increases in rumination, which in turn predicted increases in depression and anxiety symptoms over 18 months.
“Dependent stress in turn prospectively predicted increases in rumination, which in turn predicted increases in depression and anxiety symptoms over 18 months.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
May combine two claims.
Premisereasoning
Depression and anxiety are both associated with impaired cognitive control as assessed by EF task performance and EC questionnaire measures.
“Depression and anxiety are both associated with impaired cognitive control as assessed by executive function (EF) task performance and effortful control (EC) questionnaire measures.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
EF and EC are two distinct ways of assessing cognitive control that are conceptually very similar and have been defined in nearly identical terms.
“EF and EC are two distinct ways of assessing cognitive control that are conceptually very similar and have been defined in nearly identical terms”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Rothbart & Bates, 2006
  Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
Interpretationreasoning
The findings have potential implications for understanding why cognitive control impairments may be broadly associated with psychopathology.
“These finding have potential implications for understanding why cognitive control impairments may be broadly associated with psychopathology”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
Cognitive control continues to develop through adolescence into early adulthood.
“In addition, cognitive control continues to develop through adolescence into early adulthood (e.g., for review see Best, Miller, & Jones, 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Best, Miller, & Jones, 2009
  Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
Many more youth experience subclinical depression and anxiety symptoms, which can be equally distressing and impairing.
“Moreover, many more experience subclinical levels of depression and anxiety symptoms, which can be equally distressing and impairing (e.g., Aalto-Setälä, Marttunen, Tuulio-Henriksson, Poikolainen, & Lönnqvist, 2014; Beesdo, Knappe, & Pine, 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- cites Aalto-Setälä et al., 2014
  Not checked in the free run.
- cites Beesdo, Knappe, & Pine, 2009
  Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
§ Spiraling out of control: Stress generation and subsequent rumination mediate the link between poorer cognitive control and internalizing psychopathology
Poor cognitive control is linked to almost all mental disorders.
“Poor cognitive control is associated with nearly every mental disorder (e.g., for review see Snyder, Hankin, & Miyake, 2015).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Snyder, Hankin, & Miyake, 2015
  Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
Depression rates increase dramatically from middle to late adolescence and reach adult levels.
“while rates of depression increase dramatically from middle to late adolescence, when they reach adult levels”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Merikangas et al., 2010
  Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationcitation
Cognitive control as assessed by both EF and EC is an important factor in understanding psychopathology and may be a risk factor for depression and anxiety.
“Thus, there is evidence that cognitive control, as assessed by both executive function task performance and self-report effortful control questionnaires, is an important factor in understanding psychopathology, and may be a risk factor for depression and anxiety.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
Adolescence is a key developmental period for both anxiety and depression.
“Adolescence is a key developmental period for both anxiety and depression.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Merikangas et al., 2010
  Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
Anxiety rates increase steadily across adolescence and reach adult levels by late adolescence.
“Rates of anxiety increase steadily across this period, reaching adult levels by late adolescence”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Merikangas et al., 2010
  Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
The only direct test of rumination as mediator used a very small sample of remitted depressed patients and found effects only for an affective, not non-affective, cognitive control task.
“the mediating role of rumination has only been directly tested in a single study, which had a very small sample size (n = 23), included only remitted depressed patients who may differ from the general population (Just, Abramson, & Alloy, 2001), and found effects only for an affective, but not a non-affective, cognitive control task (Demeyer et al., 2012).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- cites Just, Abramson, & Alloy, 2001
  Not checked in the free run.
- cites Demeyer et al., 2012
  Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Premisecitation
Prominent theories posit rumination as the key mediator between poor cognitive control and internalizing psychopathology.
“The prominent set of theories to date have posited rumination as the key mediator.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
- cites Gotlib & Joorman, 2010
  Not checked in the free run.
- cites Koster et al., 2011
  Not checked in the free run.
- cites Whitmer & Gotlib, 2013
  Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Premisecitation
§ Spiraling out of control: Stress generation and subsequent rumination mediate the link between poorer cognitive control and internalizing psychopathology
Poor cognitive control has been proposed as a transdiagnostic risk factor for psychopathology, including depression and anxiety.
“Therefore, it has recently been proposed that such cognitive control deficits may be a transdiagnostic risk factor for psychopathology (Buckholtz & Meyer-Lindenberg, 2012; Goschke, 2014).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- cites Buckholtz & Meyer-Lindenberg, 2012
  Not checked in the free run.
- cites Goschke, 2014
  Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning
Emerging evidence suggests poor cognitive control may lead to generation of dependent stress, which can trigger rumination, which in turn increases risk for internalizing psychopathology.
“Thus, there is emerging evidence that poor cognitive control may lead to generation of dependent stress, which in turn can serve as a trigger for rumination, which in turn increases risk for internalizing psychopathology.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
Contextual stress interview methods such as the YLSI are considered the gold-standard approach to assess stressful life events.
“Contextual stress interview methods such as the YLSI are considered the gold-standard approach to assess stressful life events (e.g., Hammen, 2005).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Hammen, 2005
  Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
Specific aspects of cognitive control have been associated with rumination, while other aspects have not been consistently associated.
“while specific aspects of cognitive control have been associated with rumination, other aspects of cognitive control have not been consistently associated with rumination (for review see Whitmer & Gotlib, 2013).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Whitmer & Gotlib, 2013
  Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoning
Age and gender were controlled for in all paths of each model.
“age and gender were controlled for in all paths of each model.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown data
EATQ-R EC scale internal consistency was good (α =.87).
“internal consistency was good (α =.87).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning
Impairments in multiple forms of cognitive control may all contribute to stress generation, and stress is a common risk factor across many disorders, so this model could provide a parsimonious explanation for why broad impairments in cognitive control are associated transdiagnostically with psychopathology.
“Since impairments in multiple forms of cognitive control may all contribute to stress generation (e.g., via different functional impairments), and stress is a common risk factor across many disorders (e.g., for review see Grant et al., 2014), this model could provide a parsimonious explanation for why broad impairments in cognitive control are associated transdiagnostically with psychopathology.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Grant et al., 2014
  Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
Dependent negative life events, such as failing to achieve a goal, are potent triggers of rumination and can lead to long-lasting increases in the tendency to ruminate.
“Thus dependent negative life events, such as failing to achieve a goal, are potent triggers of rumination and can lead to long-lasting increases in the tendency to ruminate (Michl, McLaughlin, Shepherd, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2013).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Michl, McLaughlin, Shepherd, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2013
  Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductcitation
YLSI is a reliable, valid, semi-structured contextual stress interview used to assess youths' ongoing chronic stress level in multiple domains.
“The YLSI is a reliable, valid, semi-structured contextual stress interview used to assess youths’ ongoing chronic stress level in multiple domains.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Rudolph & Flynn, 2007
  Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
Rumination predicts increases in depression and anxiety, likely through multiple mechanisms, including preventing active coping and reinforcing and prolonging negative mood.
“Rumination, in turn, predicts increases in depression and anxiety, likely through multiple mechanisms, including preventing more effective active coping mechanisms (e.g., problem solving) and reinforcing and prolonging negative mood (for review see Smith & Alloy, 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Smith & Alloy, 2009
  Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
The stress generation model posits that individual difference vulnerabilities related to depression and anxiety, and internalizing psychopathology itself, impair functioning and may increase risk for self-generated dependent stressful life events.
“The stress generation model (e.g., Conway, Hammen, & Brennan, 2012; Hammen, 1991) posits that individual difference vulnerabilities related to depression and anxiety, as well as internalizing psychopathology itself, impair functioning and may increase the risk for self-generated (i.e., dependent) stressful life events (e.g., achievement failures, interpersonal conflict).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- cites Conway, Hammen, & Brennan, 2012
  Not checked in the free run.
- cites Hammen, 1991
  Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown data
ALEQ items were coded for dependence by two independent coders and initial agreement was high (κ=.86); discrepant items were resolved by the first author.
“Items were coded for dependence by two independent coders and initial agreement was high (κ= .86); coding of the two discrepant items was resolved by the first author.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown data
At T4, participants had MASC data from 5.44 out of 6 time points on average (SD=0.94).
“and from the MASC from 5.44 out of 6 time points (SD=0.94).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown data
At T2, participants had ALEQ data from 4.59 out of a possible 5 time points on average (SD=0.83).
“participants had data from 4.59 out of a possible 5 time points on average (SD=0.83).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown data
MASC internal consistency was good (α > .87 for all time points).
“internal consistency was good (α > .87 for all time points).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Premisecitation
Predominant models of rumination posit that the ruminative cycle is initiated when there is a discrepancy between one's target and actual status.
“Predominant models of rumination posit that the ruminative cycle is initiated when there is a discrepancy between one’s target and actual status (e.g., Smith & Alloy, 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Smith & Alloy, 2009
  Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown data
At T4, participants had CDI data from 5.47 out of 6 time points on average (SD=0.94).
“on average participants had data on the CDI from 5.47 out of 6 time points (SD=0.94)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Study design and conductreasoning
YLSI coding is based on manualized objective ratings for each stressor type, with no consideration of the participant's subjective response to the stressor.
“Specifically, coding for the YLSI is based on manualized objective ratings for each stressor type, with no consideration of the participant’s subjective response to the stressor.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown data
For depression, this pathway is likely bidirectional, potentially leading to a positive feedback loop of increasing depression and decreasing cognitive control over time.
“Thus, for depression this pathway is likely bidirectional, potentially leading to a positive feedback loop of increasing depression and decreasing cognitive control over time.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone given
Effortful control questionnaire responses could potentially be influenced by self-report biases such as negativity bias, rather than reflecting only cognitive control ability.
“In addition, EC questionnaire responses could potentially be influenced by self-report biases such as negativity bias, rather than reflecting only cognitive control ability.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Rests on an assumption: Effortful control questionnaire responses may be influenced by self-report biases such as negativity bias, rather than reflecting only cognitive control ability.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductown data
Internal consistency of the PSWQ-C in the current sample was good (α = .92).
“Internal consistency in the current sample was good (α = .92).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
May combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning
Questionnaire measures pose interpretational problems because real-world behaviors involve multiple executive and non-executive processes and can be heavily influenced by contextual factors.
“However, questionnaire measures pose interpretational problems in that these real-world behaviors involve multiple executive and non-executive processes, and can also be heavily influenced by contextual factors (e.g., having the motivation and opportunity to complete homework on time).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationcitation
Poor cognitive control may be associated with increased stress responses via lower perceived stress controllability.
“This raises the possibility that poor cognitive control may be associated with increased stress responses via lower perceived stress controllability.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
Rumination itself may prolong or re-activate physiological stress responses, which may help mediate the link between rumination and psychopathology.
“In addition, rumination itself may prolong or re-activate physiological stress responses (e.g., Brosschot, 2010), which may help mediate the link between rumination and psychopathology.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Brosschot, 2010
  Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
Different components of executive function correlate with one another, tapping a common underlying ability posited to be the ability to actively maintain task goals and use this information for top-down support of task-relevant responses.
“Specifically, different components of EF correlate with one another, thus tapping some common underlying ability, posited to be the ability to actively maintain task goals and use this information to provide top–down support for task-relevant responses (e.g., Friedman et al., 2008; Miyake and Friedman, 2012).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- cites Friedman et al., 2008
  Not checked in the free run.
- cites Miyake and Friedman, 2012
  Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
Individuals with poor executive function respond to daily stressors with greater negative affect and reduced problem solving to cope with stress.
“and respond to daily stressors with greater negative affect and reduced problem solving to cope with stress (Compton et al., 2011).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Compton et al., 2011
  Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning
It seems likely that cognitive control may affect both the generation of stressful life events and the physiological and psychological reactivity to those events.
“Thus, it seems likely that cognitive control may affect both the generation of stressful life events and the physiological and psychological reactivity to those events.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
Prefrontal mechanisms are critical for the perception of stress controllability, reducing the physiological stress response when stressors are perceived as controllable.
“In addition, prefrontal mechanisms are critical for the perception of stress controllability, reducing the physiological stress response when stressors are perceived as controllable (e.g., Varela, Wang, Christianson, Maier, & Cooper, 2012).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Varela et al., 2012
  Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
Lower self-reported cognitive control predicts a greater cortisol response and increased subjective arousal and unpleasantness.
“Likewise, lower self-reported cognitive control predicts a greater cortisol response and increased subjective arousal and unpleasantness (Oldehinkel, Hartman, Nederhof, Riese, & Ormel, 2011).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Oldehinkel et al., 2011
  Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Premisecitation
There is evidence that laboratory stressors can impair cognitive control, especially when they are perceived as severe and uncontrollable.
“Specifically, there is evidence that laboratory stressors can impair cognitive control, especially when they are perceived as severe and uncontrollable (Henderson, Snyder, Gupta, & Banich, 2012), and that poor post-stress cognitive control is associated with depression symptoms in individuals who tend to ruminate (Quinn & Joormann, 2015).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Henderson et al., 2012
  Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
Poor post-stress cognitive control is associated with depression symptoms in individuals who tend to ruminate.
“and that poor post-stress cognitive control is associated with depression symptoms in individuals who tend to ruminate (Quinn & Joormann, 2015).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Quinn & Joormann, 2015
  Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown data
The results are consistent with the hypothesis that poor cognitive control can lead to stress generation, which in turn can lead to increases in rumination as individuals dwell on stressful life events.
“These results are consistent with the hypothesis that poor cognitive control can lead to stress generation, which in turn can lead to increases in rumination as individuals dwell on these stressful life events.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
Some evidence indicates cognitive control may also be associated with different responses to stress.
“However, some evidence indicates cognitive control may also be associated with different responses to stress.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown data
Across both studies there was strong and complementary evidence in favor of the proposed role of poor cognitive control in stress generation, with stress in turn triggering rumination, which is a potent immediate risk factor for both depression and anxiety.
“Thus, across both studies there was strong and complementary evidence in favor of the proposed role of poor cognitive control in stress generation, with stress in turn triggering rumination, which is a potent immediate risk factor for both depression and anxiety (e.g., Michl et al., 2013).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Michl et al., 2013
  Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Premisecitation
Contemporary theories posit that poor cognitive control directly leads to increased rumination.
“Contemporary theories posit that poor cognitive control directly leads to increased rumination (Gotlib & Joorman, 2010; Koster et al., 2011; Whitmer & Gotlib, 2013).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
- cites Gotlib & Joorman, 2010
  Not checked in the free run.
- cites Koster et al., 2011
  Not checked in the free run.
- cites Whitmer & Gotlib, 2013
  Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoning
To control for potential effects of overall psychomotor speed and IQ on EF task performance, participants completed a choice reaction time task and the WASI-II.
“To control for potential effects of overall psychomotor speed and IQ that could influence EF task performance, participants also completed a choice reaction time task to assess psychomotor speed and the WASI-II to assess IQ.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
Individuals with poor executive function respond to acute laboratory social stressors with a greater physiological stress response (cortisol and skin conductance) and greater negative affect.
“For example, recent studies have found that individuals with poor executive function respond to acute laboratory social stressors with a greater physiological stress response (cortisol and skin conductance) and greater negative affect (Hendrawan, Yamakawa, Kimura, Murakami, & Ohira, 2012), and respond to daily stressors with greater negative affect and reduced problem solving to cope with stress (”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Hendrawan et al., 2012
  Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
Relatively few studies have assessed the relation between effortful control and executive function, especially beyond early-middle childhood (2-10 years), and they reported mixed results, with generally weak to modest correlations between EF task performance and EC questionnaires.
“relatively few studies have assessed the relation between EC and EF, especially beyond early-middle childhood (2–10 years), and they reported mixed results, with generally weak to modest correlations between EF task performance and EC questionnaires (for review, see Toplak et al., 2012).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Toplak et al., 2012
  Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
These studies for the first time put together multiple links in a pathway, some of which had been previously investigated in isolation but which had never been jointly tested before.
“These studies for the first time put together multiple links in a pathway, some of which had been previously investigated in isolation but which had never been jointly tested before (Williams et al., 2009).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Williams et al., 2009
  Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
Preliminary evidence indicates that the general psychopathology factor is associated with poorer performance on some executive function tasks and with self-reported cognitive and self-control problems.
“Indeed, preliminary evidence suggests that the p factor is associated with poorer performance on some EF tasks, and self-reported cognitive and self-control problems (Caspi et al., 2014).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Caspi et al., 2014
  Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown data
The current findings challenge and suggest a modification to these models, in that rumination did not directly mediate the link between cognitive control and psychopathology.
“Our findings challenge and suggest a modification to these models, in that rumination did not directly mediate the link between cognitive control and psychopathology in the current studies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
Interpretationreasoning
These findings will need to be confirmed in clinical samples prior to definitive efforts to translate them to practice in clinical settings.
“Thus, these findings will need to be confirmed in clinical samples prior to definitive efforts to translate them to practice in clinical settings.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
Broad impairment across most executive function tasks is associated with both internalizing and externalizing psychopathology.
“Broad impairment across most EF tasks is associated with both internalizing and externalizing psychopathology (e.g., see Snyder et al., 2015 for review)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Snyder et al., 2015
  Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
Premisecitation
There is little evidence that directly training executive function effectively generalizes to real-world function or improves clinical symptoms.
“However, thus far there is little evidence that directly training executive function (i.e., targeting the weakness rather than compensatory strategies) effectively generalizes to real-world function or improves clinical symptoms (for review see Rabipour & Raz, 2012), although there is some evidence of that cognitive control training can transfer to other cognitive control tasks in individuals with”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Rabipour & Raz, 2012
  Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone given
The current studies took a dimensional approach, assessing anxiety and depression symptoms in a general community sample.
“It is important to note that the current studies took a dimensional approach, assessing anxiety and depression symptoms in a general community sample.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisecitation
There is some evidence that cognitive control training can transfer to other cognitive control tasks in individuals with high depressive symptoms.
“although there is some evidence of that cognitive control training can transfer to other cognitive control tasks in individuals with high depressive symptoms, suggesting further transfer may be possible (Owens, Koster, & Derakshan, 2013).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Owens et al., 2013
  Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Premisecitation
Stress is a transdiagnostic risk factor for psychopathology.
“Given that stress is a transdiagnostic risk factor for psychopathology (e.g., Grant et al., 2014)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
- cites Grant et al., 2014
  Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationreasoning
The age-related increase in the link between poor executive function and stress generation may occur because adult caretakers partly compensate for younger adolescents' poor executive function, preventing it from producing stress-generating behaviors.
“This may have occurred because adult caretakers may partly compensate for younger adolescents’ poor EF (e.g., reminders to complete homework), and thus prevent poor EF from being translated into behaviors that lead to stress (e.g., bad grades) among younger aged youth.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning
It is possible that rumination directly mediates links between cognitive control over affective information, or specific cognitive control processes, and psychopathology, while broad impairments in non-affective cold cognitive control are associated with rumination only indirectly through stress generation.
“Thus, it is possible that rumination directly mediates links between cognitive control over affective information, or specific cognitive control processes (e.g., controlling the affective contents and scope of working memory) and psychopathology, while broad impairments in non-affective “cold” cognitive control are associated with rumination only indirectly through stress generation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

70 of 70

The paper relies on this without support.
The specific mechanisms linking poor cognitive control to higher psychopathology are largely unknown.
“However, the specific mechanisms that lead individuals with poor cognitive control to experience higher levels of psychopathology remain largely unknown.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The proposed role of poor cognitive control in stress generation has never been directly tested.
“However, this proposal has never been directly tested, and the potential role for cognitive control in stress generation has received scant attention in the literature.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The multiple-mediator model linking poor cognitive control to internalizing psychopathology via stress generation and rumination has never been tested as an integrated whole.
“However, this model with multiple mediating mechanisms has never been tested as an integrated whole.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Other studies linking cognitive control to rumination have been almost exclusively cross-sectional.
“Other studies linking cognitive control to rumination have been almost exclusively cross-sectional.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Self-reported cognitive control may be contaminated by negative self-evaluations rather than reflecting true cognitive control ability.
“Study 2 addresses the possibility that self-reported cognitive control could be contaminated by negative self-evaluations, rather than reflecting true cognitive control ability.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Effortful control questionnaire responses may be influenced by self-report biases such as negativity bias, rather than reflecting only cognitive control ability.
“In addition, EC questionnaire responses could potentially be influenced by self-report biases such as negativity bias, rather than reflecting only cognitive control ability.”

6 of 6

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Ruminative stress may be especially deleterious to emotional health.
“which may be especially deleterious to emotional health (Snyder and Hankin 2016)”
From Context and craving during stressful events in the daily lives of drug-dependent patients (2017) · cites this paper as Snyder and Hankin 2016

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

Consistentt(291) = -5.6reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(291)=−5.60, p < .001”
Consistentt(291) = -3.04reported p = .003 · recomputed p = .003
“t(291)=−3.04, p = .003”
Consistentt(139) = -1.94reported p = .055 · recomputed p = .054
“t(139)=−1.94, p = .055”
Consistentt(138) = -2.89reported p = .004 · recomputed p = .004
“t(138)=−2.89, p = .004”
Consistentt(138) = -2.07reported p = .041 · recomputed p = .040
“t(138)=−2.07, p = .041”
Consistentt(139) = -0.52reported p = .6 · recomputed p = .604
“t(139)=−0.52, p = .6”

6 of 6

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.

The citation lists haven’t been fetched yet

References 92 · Cited by 75

Research works printed but not linked: 3

Ellis L. K., 2001, Poster presented at the 2001 biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development
Muthén L. K., 2012, Mplus user’s guide
Rothbart M. K., 2006, Handbook of child psychology, social, emotional, and personality development, 3, 1232

Authors: Snyder, H. R., & Hankin, B. L.
Affiliations: University of Denver (US)
Corresponding author: Snyder, Hannah R.
ORCID: Snyder, Hannah R.
Hankin, Benjamin L.
Venue: Clinical Psychological Science
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2016-07-08
Volume: 4
Issue: 6
Pages: 1047-1064
ISSN: 2167-7026 (ISSN-L)
2167-7034
DOI: 10.1177/2167702616633157
PMC: PMC5102509
OpenAlex: W2401790910
Semantic Scholar: 75ee7542f6405bdd978f96d18085053c1fc3d099
Cited by: 75
References: 92
Citations by year: 2026: 7 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 1
FWCI: 8.99
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Clinical Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (F32MH098481, R01MH077195, R21MH102210, T32MH015442)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords: cognitive control, executive function, depression, anxiety, internalizing psychopathology, rumination, transdiagnostic risk factors, youth, stress generation

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-07.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-07.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

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Spiraling Out of Control: Stress Generation and Subsequent Rumination Mediate the Link Between Poorer Cognitive Control and Internalizing Psychopathology

Abstract

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Claims other papers make about this one

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