Selecting a Grounded Theory Approach for Nursing Research
Open accessAbstract
Grounded theory is a commonly used research methodology. There are three primary approaches to grounded theory in nursing research: those espoused by Glaser, Strauss and Corbin, and Charmaz. All three approaches use similar procedures, yet there are important differences among them, which implies that researchers need to make careful choices when using grounded theory. Researchers new to grounded theory need to find the most appropriate approach that fits their research field, topic, and researcher position. In this article, we compare the three grounded theory approaches. Choices of a grounded theory approach will depend on the researcher’s understanding of the philosophical underpinnings of all three approaches. Practical aspects of grounded theory approaches should match the information processing styles and analytical abilities of the researcher and the intended use of the theory. We illustrate key aspects of decision making about which method to select by drawing upon the first author’s experiences in his doctoral research.
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The epistemological and ontological differences in Grounded Theory affect both the quality criteria applied to research projects and the outcomes of the resulting grounded theory.
“This impact affects both the quality criteria applied to research projects (Bøttcher Berthelsen, 2018) and the outcomes of the resulting grounded theory (Singh and Estefan, 2018).”
From Application and challenges of using a Constructivist Grounded Theory methodology to address an undertheorized clinical challenge: A discussion paper (2024) · cites this paper as Singh and Estefan, 2018
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Being Uncertain: Rural-Living Cardiac Patients’ Experience of Seeking Health Care
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de Castro, O., Lima, R. S., Sanches, R. S., et al. (2020) · Revista de Enfermagem do Centro-Oeste Mineiro · doi:10.19175/recom.v10i0.3607 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Rodrigues, P., Ostyn, J., Mroz, S., et al. (2022) · BMJ Supportive & Palliative Care · doi:10.1136/bmjspcare-2021-003395 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The Application of Classic Grounded Theory in Nursing Studies: A Qualitative Systematic Review
Connor, J., Flenady, T., Dwyer, T., & Massey, D. L. (2025) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.17022 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Nurses' require new knowledge to address challenges of meeting the dynamic healthcare needs of society (Singh and Estefan 2018), and GT researchers generate new nursing knowledge derived from real interactions with stakeholders and end users as well as other key elements of nursing practice.”
Paradis-Gagné, É., Holmes, D., Bernheim, E., & Cader, M. (2023) · Issues in Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1080/01612840.2023.2265468 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“According to Singh and Estefan (2018, p. 1): “grounded theory helps nurses to understand, develop, and utilize real-world knowledge about health concerns.”
BackgroundBest Practices of Technology Business Incubators in the Philippines
Alinsunod, J. P. (2019) · International Journal of Advanced Trends in Computer Science and Engineering · doi:10.30534/ijatcse/2019/70852019 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
An Exploration of Characteristics and Behavioral Traits of DAISY Honorees and Nominees
Nair, J. M., Merring, P., Jones, B., & Güney, S. (2020) · JONA The Journal of Nursing Administration · doi:10.1097/nna.0000000000000962 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
A Mixed-Method Social Network Analysis of Low-Income Diverse Older Volunteers
Cao, Q., Dabelko‐Schoeny, H., Warren, K. L., & Lee, M. Y. (2023) · Journal of Applied Gerontology · doi:10.1177/07334648231193292 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Rather than making an unrealistic assumption regarding researchers ’ objectivity, constructivist GT viewed the subjectivity of researchers as a tool and encouraged researchers to discuss how their identities shape the research process (Singh and Estefan, 2018).”
BackgroundFàbregues, S., Arellano, A., Younas, A., Vicente, E., Berástegui, A., Casas, A., Escalante-Barrios, E., Andrés-Gárriz, C., & Mumbardó-Adam, C. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0325919 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Genna, C., Thekkan, K. R., Dall’Oglio, I., et al. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1111/jocn.70090 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Charmaz viewed research as a collective and constructive process involving researchers and the participants in constant interaction to unfold the multiple perspectives of participants and interpret the phenomenon of interest (Charmaz 2014; Singh and Estefan 2018).”
Wright, R. C., Polivka, B. J., & Villwock, J. A. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e30537 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The National Budget Circular 461: Emerging trends in Philippines higher education promotion system
Esponilla, F. D., Tolentino, L. K. S., Barbacena, C. B., et al. (2020) · International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education (IJERE) · doi:10.11591/ijere.v9i4.20822 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“The qualitative phase was the in-depth data analysis through open coding [46-49], selective coding [49-51], and axial coding [52-54] in the Delphi round 1 survey results.”
MethodXu, X., Tan, Y., & Feng, C. Q. (2022) · Natural Resources Forum · doi:10.1111/1477-8947.12261 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Fostering Hope: Comprehensive Accessible Mother-Infant Dyad Care for Neonatal Abstinence (CAIN)
Clarke, D., Foss, K., Lifeso, N., & Hicks, M. (2022) · Children · doi:10.3390/children9101517 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“In other words, this approach considers previous personal and professional experiences of the researchers [22].”
BackgroundInfluentialAneni, K., Ijeli, C., Cardona, L., Calhoun, A. J., Reiss, D., Benoit, L., & Martin, A. (2022) · Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/jpm.12885 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Bridges to Civic Health: Enhancing Shared Service-Learning Collaboration in Nursing and History
Sundberg, A. D., & Koehler, E. (2022) · Journal of Experiential Education · doi:10.1177/10538259221146745 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Grounded theory has been used in both service-learning and population-health nursing research (Deeley, 2010; Singh & Estefan, 2018).”
MethodCauses and Consequences of Iranian Elite Athletes’ International Migrations
Salimi, M., Khodaparast, M., & Nikou, P. S. (2023) · Physical Culture and Sport Studies and Research · doi:10.2478/pcssr-2024-0004 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Challenges Experienced by ICU Nurses in Kuwait during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Haddad, A. A., Arber, A., Cox, A., & Gallagher, A. M. (2024) · International Journal of Nursing Studies Advances · doi:10.1016/j.ijnsa.2024.100226 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Using Charmaz ’ s grounded theory ensured that the analysis was primarily grounded in the nurses ’ reported experiences, whilst also encouraging the analyst to draw upon prior insight and utilise creative interpretation (Singh and Estefan, 2018).”
MethodFleet, D., & Reeves, A. (2023) · Counselling and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1002/capr.12642 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Strategic human resource management: Lived experiences
Wahitu, F. H., & Gladys, M. (2025) · SA Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.4102/sajhrm.v23i0.2869 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“As Singh and Estefan (2018) emphasise, we were drawn to the GT because we sought to further understand the implementation of SHRM and utilise real-world experiences of it, to develop a theory to explain the complex relationship between SHRM and organisational goal attainment.”
Harrad-Hyde, F., Williams, C., & Armstrong, N. (2025) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2025.118012 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Illegal urban wild meat supply chain characterization: A case study on zoonosis in Lusaka, Zambia
Mukanganwa, B. A., Mukuma, M., Shindano, J., & Moonga, H. B. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0342396 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Grounded theory uses the inductive method of coding [54], which has the advantage of reducing study bias [55].”
Review of Grounded Theory for Mental Health Service and Migrant Health Research
Barbo, G. (2024) · American Journal of Qualitative Research · doi:10.29333/ajqr/14888 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Asgharinajib, M., Feiz, D., Minbashrazgah, M. M., et al. (2025) · Climate Risk Management · doi:10.1016/j.crm.2025.100700 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Kotz, J., Reid, C. L., Robinson, M., et al. (2025) · Primary Health Care Research & Development · doi:10.1017/s1463423624000665 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“This required being aware that changing context or perspectives of reality impact analysis and that personal knowledge, in this case, Indigenous peoples ’ knowledge and experience aided the knowing (Singh and Estefan, 2018).”
Just Listen! The importance of listening in foreign correspondents–governments relationships
Bejerano, A., & Magen, C. (2023) · Journalism · doi:10.1177/14648849231166752 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Scholars claim that the interactive process and its temporal, cultural, and structural contexts assist in discovering realities and constructing a theory based on the interpretation of the participants ’ stories (Singh et al., 2018).”
BackgroundWork Values and Teaching Performance of Physical Education Teachers in Secondary Schools
Sabido, G. (2024) · Journal of interdisciplinary perspectives · doi:10.69569/jip.2024.0031 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Reducing PTSD in mass medical events: An immediate preventive intervention
Yaakobi, E., Kaufman, E., & Rivkind, A. (2024) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2024.116224 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Migration Experiences and Mental Health of Older Latin American Immigrants in Australia
Hormazábal‐Salgado, R., Whitehead, D., Osman, A. D., & Hills, D. (2024) · Journal of International Migration and Integration / Revue de l integration et de la migration internationale · doi:10.1007/s12134-024-01213-1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“According to Singh and Estefan (2018), in this approach, the researcher acknowledges multiple perspectives of reality, utilising their knowledge and experience to guide the process.”
Jones, C., & Greene, G. (2025) · Musculoskeletal Care · doi:10.1002/msc.70031 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Becoming Transdisciplinary: Towards a Grounded Theory of Graduate Student Development
Miller, C., & Cruz, L. E. (2025) · Innovative Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10755-025-09825-w · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…grounded theory (CGT) (2006, 2015), which emphasizes that knowledge or insight is constructed by individuals in ways that are likely to differ based on personal characteristics and epistemological context (Burns et al., 2022; Mills et al., 2006a, 2006b; Singh & Estefan, 2018; Thornberg, 2017).”
Exploring the Nursing Care Process for Patients with COVID-19: A Grounded Theory Study
Karimi, Z., Saeedinejad, Z., Fereidouni, Z., Behnammoghadam, M., Mirzaee, M. S., Mousavizadeh, A., & Fazelniya, Z. (2022) · The Open Nursing Journal · doi:10.2174/18744346-v16-e2203290 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Aciro, R., Oriangi, G., Onen, D., et al. (2023) · East African Journal of Education Studies · doi:10.37284/eajes.6.1.1172 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Family Members’ Explanatory Models of Cancer Anorexia–Cachexia
McClement, S. (2024) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare12161610 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“A three-stage process was used [25].”
Grounded Theory for a Doctoral Thesis
Chakabwata, W. (2024) · Advances in library and information science (ALIS) book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-3069-2.ch009 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Aryal, A., Clarke‐Deelder, E., Afriyie, D. O., et al. (2025) · SSM - Health Systems · doi:10.1016/j.ssmhs.2025.100062 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Lee, K., Kim, S., Lee, H., et al. (2025) · Psycho-Oncology · doi:10.1002/pon.70246 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Ground theory is a qualitative research approach that helps researchers understand, identify patterns, and predict phenomena from empirical data related to health and practice concerns, etc. [19].”
Moore, P. E. (2020) · Sheffield Hallam University · doi:10.7190/shu-thesis-00456
- Authors
- Singh, S., & Estefan, A.
- Affiliations
- University of Calgary (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Singh, Shaminder
- Venue
- Global Qualitative Nursing Research
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2018-01
- Volume
- 5
- Pages
- 2333393618799571-2333393618799571
- ISSN
- 2333-3936 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6174650
- OpenAlex
- W2895681440
- Semantic Scholar
- 0abeb749241c853e9ed8c953201a9129c4b82195
- Cited by
- 118
- References
- 26
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 4
- FWCI
- 23.56
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- Global Qualitative Nursing Research (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Libraries and Cultural Resources (University of Calgary) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Libraries and Cultural Resources (University of Calgary) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Faculty of Nursing, University of Calgary (Graduate Student Knowledge Translation Assistantsh)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Qualitative Research Methods and Applications
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Health Information Management › Methodologies in Health Research and Practice
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Qualitative Research Methods and Ethics
- Keywords
- grounded theory, nursing research methodology, Glaser and Strauss, qualitative research approaches, methodological choices, researcher positionality, theory development
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