The DOI matches its Crossref record; 29 of the 29 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Fuzzy-Trace Theory, False Memory, and the Law
Open accessAbstract
Fuzzy-trace theory (FTT) provides well-researched scientific principles that explain worrisome forms of false memory in the law. False memories are of great legal concern because memory reports are frequently the evidence that determines guilt/innocence and are sometimes the only evidence that crimes have been committed. FTT’s principles reveal errors in commonsense theories that jurors use to judge the credibility of witnesses’ memory reports. This science versus commonsense disconnect is salient in cases involving child witnesses, eyewitness identifications, and confessions. The consequences of this disconnect for justice could be ameliorated by a simple change in federal rules of evidence.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
An increase in irrelevant associations might stem from increased incidental learning due to activation of hippocampal CB1 receptors.
“An increase in irrelevant associations might stem from increased incidental learning due to activation of hippocampal CB1 receptors (12).”
From Hazy memories in the courtroom: A review of alcohol and other drug effects on false memory and suggestibility (2021) · cites this paper as [12]
The paper’s discussion of verbatim and gist memory (Name Description; page unavailable) addresses false memories, but not incidental learning or hippocampal CB1 receptors. Searches for those terms and for cannabinoid receptors found no passage addressing the proposed mechanism. (LLM, conf=0.75)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredHippocampal CB1 receptor activation might underlie the formation of incidental associations, which would predict an increase in false memories.
“It has been suggested that hippocampal CB1 receptor activation might underlie the formation of incidental associations (12), which would predict an increase in false memories.”
From Hazy memories in the courtroom: A review of alcohol and other drug effects on false memory and suggestibility (2021) · cites this paper as [12]
The paper’s Fuzzy-Trace Theory discussion (page unavailable) explains false memories through gist and verbatim retrieval, not hippocampal CB1 receptor activation. Searches for CB1, hippocampal cannabinoid receptors, and incidental associations found no passage addressing the mechanism attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Eyewitness identification procedures: Recommendations for lineups and photospreads.
Wells, G. L., Small, M., Penrod, S., Malpass, R. S., Fulero, S. M., & Brimacombe, C. A. E. (1998) · Law and Human Behavior · doi:10.1023/a:1025750605807 · Cited by 839
The Psychology of Interrogations and Confessions: A Handbook
Gudjonsson, G. H. (2003) · Research Portal (King's College London) · Cited by 780
(2005) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195154054.001.0001 · Cited by 586
Self-citationOn the Psychology of Confessions: Does Innocence Put Innocents at Risk?
Kassin, S. M. (2005) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.60.3.215 · Cited by 485
The Relationship Between Eyewitness Confidence and Identification Accuracy: A New Synthesis
Wixted, J. T., & Wells, G. L. (2017) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100616686966 · Cited by 467
Replicable unconscious semantic priming.
Draine, S. C., & Greenwald, A. G. (1998) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.127.3.286 · Cited by 447
Dual processes in decision making and developmental neuroscience: A fuzzy-trace model
Reyna, V. F., & Brainerd, C. J. (2011) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2011.07.004 · Cited by 390
Self-citationKintsch, W., & Mangalath, P. (2010) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/j.1756-8765.2010.01107.x · Cited by 190
The Suggestibility of Children: Scientific Research and Legal Implications
Ceci, S. J., & Friedman, R. D. (2000) · Scholarship @ Cornell Law (Cornell University) · Cited by 181
Comparing recollective experience in true and false autobiographical memories.
Heaps, C. M., & Nash, M. R. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.27.4.920 · Cited by 174
Memory distortion in people reporting abduction by aliens.
Clancy, S. A., McNally, R. J., Schacter, D. L., Lenzenweger, M. F., & Pitman, R. K. (2002) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.111.3.455 · Cited by 172
Recollections of true and false autobiographical memories.
Conway, M., Collins, A. F., Gathercole, S. E., & Anderson, S. J. (1996) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.125.1.69 · Cited by 152
How Fuzzy-Trace Theory Predicts True and False Memories for Words, Sentences, and Narratives
Reyna, V., Corbin, J., Weldon, R. B., & Brainerd, C. (2016) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2015.12.003 · Cited by 128
Self-citationMemory distortion in people reporting abduction by aliens.
Clancy, S. A., McNally, R. J., Schacter, D. L., et al. (2002) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.111.3.455 · Cited by 124
Comparing recollective experience in true and false autobiographical memories.
Heaps, C. M., & Nash, M. R. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.27.4.920 · Cited by 120
Fuzzy-trace theory and lifespan cognitive development
Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F. (2015) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2015.07.006 · Cited by 113
Self-citationMemory illusions and consciousness: Examining the phenomenology of true and false memories
Lampinen, J. M., Neuschatz, J. S., & Payne, D. G. (1997) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-997-1000-5 · Cited by 108
Fisher, A. V., & Sloutsky, V. M. (2005) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00865.x · Cited by 101
Story contexts increase susceptibility to the DRM illusion in 5‐year‐olds
Dewhurst, S. A., Pursglove, R. C., & Lewis, C. N. (2007) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00592.x · Cited by 63
McNally, R. J. (2003) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-8721.01217 · Cited by 54
Chapter Three - False Recollection: Empirical Findings and Their Theoretical Implications
Arndt, J. D. (2012) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-394393-4.00003-0 · Cited by 44
Recollection rejection of false narrative statements
Brainerd, C. J., Reyna, V. F., & Estrada, S. M. (2006) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210600648449 · Cited by 37
Self-citationThe effects of verbal descriptions on performance in lineups and showups.
Wilson, B. M., Seale-Carlisle, T. M., & Mickes, L. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0000354 · Cited by 33
Lampinen, J. M., & Odegard, T. N. (2006) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658210600648407 · Cited by 32
Heilbronner, R. L. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-57111-9_979 · Cited by 18
Phantom Recollection of Bridging and Elaborative Inferences
Singer, M., & Spear, J. (2015) · Discourse Processes · doi:10.1080/0163853x.2015.1029858 · Cited by 17
If I’m Certain, Is It True? Accuracy and Confidence in Eyewitness Memory
Loftus, E. F., & Greenspan, R. L. (2017) · Gothic.net · doi:10.1177/1529100617699241 · Cited by 17
Brainerd, C. J. (2013) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2013.791322 · Cited by 13
Self-citationBornstein, B. H., & Wiener, R. L. (2009) · Nebraska Symposium on Motivation/The Nebraska symposium on motivation · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0696-0 · Cited by 13
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 10
- Armstong K., 2001, Chicago Tribune
- Brainerd C. J., Emotion
- Brown D. A., 2017, Paper presented at American Psychology and Law Society
- Ceci S. J., 1995, Jeopardy in the courtroom
- Ceci S. J., 2000, Cornell Law Review, 86, 33
- Haber R. N., 2001, Paper presented at Psychonomic Society
- Laney C., 2010, Emotion and the law, 157
- McAuliff B. D., 2007, Paper presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development
- Reyna V. F., 2011, Developmental Review, 31, 180
- Saks M. J., 2018, Monitor on Psychology, 49, 7
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Reyna, V. F. (2020) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1912441117 · Cited by 129
Self-citationKloft, L., Monds, L. A., Blokland, A., Ramaekers, J. G., & Otgaar, H. (2021) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.02.012 · Cited by 58
“Three major theories can account for the occurrence of spontaneous false memories: Associative-Activation Theory (AAT; Otgaar et al., 2019), Activation/Monitoring Theory (AMT; Roediger et al., 2001), and Fuzzy-Trace Theory (FTT; Brainerd and Reyna, 2019).”
BackgroundRemembering Molly: Immediate and delayed false memory formation after acute MDMA exposure
Kloft, L., Otgaar, H., Blokland, A., Toennes, S. W., & Ramaekers, J. G. (2022) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2022.01.005 · Cited by 19
Brassil, M., O’Mahony, C., & Greene, C. M. (2024) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-024-02512-5 · Cited by 14
Creating a false alibi leads to errors of commission and omission
Riesthuis, P., Otgaar, H., Cort, A. D., Bogaard, G., & Mangiulli, I. (2022) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3982 · Cited by 16
False denials increase false memories for trauma-related discussions
Bücken, C. A., Mangiulli, I., Uzun, S., & Otgaar, H. (2022) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2022.2094964 · Cited by 11
The Multiple Roles of Emotion in Interpretation and Memory of Sexual Consent
Davis, D., Cano, J., Miller, G. D., & Loftus, E. F. (2023) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/tops.12691 · Cited by 10
Discrepancies in episodic memory: different patterns of age stereotypes in item and source memory
Li, M., & Nie, A. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01937-8 · Cited by 10
Yin, H., Zhou, Y., & Li, Z. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1380742 · Cited by 8
Myths of trauma memory: on the oversimplification of effects of attention narrowing under stress
Davis, D., Hogan, A. A., & Hart, D. J. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1294730 · Cited by 6
Context and target recollection for words and pictures in young adults with developmental dyslexia
Obidziński, M., & Nieznański, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.993384 · Cited by 6
Nie, A., & Li, M. (2024) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5406/19398298.137.1.02 · Cited by 4
Pupil response patterns distinguish true from false memories
Kafkas, A., Brown, T., Olusola, N., & Guo, C. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-44362-6 · Cited by 6
Hacia protocolos científicamente informados: El caso del abuso sexual infantil (ASI)
Berrocal-Aragonés, G., Uribe-Bravo, K. A., & Ramos, E. D. (2025) · Athenea Digital Revista de pensamiento e investigación social · doi:10.5565/rev/athenea.3673 · Cited by 3
Eyewitness memory contamination through misleading questions by reporters
Blom, R., & Huang, K. (2021) · Newspaper Research Journal · doi:10.1177/07395329211030628 · Cited by 3
Blom, R. (2022) · Journalism Practice · doi:10.1080/17512786.2022.2034519 · Cited by 3
Helm, R. K., & Reyna, V. F. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192849069.003.0005 · Cited by 3
Self-citationMethods of Exploring Related-Meaning-Based False Memories
McGuire, K. (2021) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248372.2021.1976782 · Cited by 2
Superando las trampas de la memoria: 23 aportes para declaraciones en casos de violencia sexual
Ramos, E. D., Berrocal-Aragonés, G., & Uribe-Bravo, K. A. (2023) · Psicoperspectivas Individuo y Sociedad · doi:10.5027/psicoperspectivas-vol22-issue3-fulltext-2908 · Cited by 2
The efficacy of the Self‐Administered Interview in minimising the misinformation effect
Bird, E., Wiener, J. M., & Attard‐Johnson, J. (2024) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.4179 · Cited by 1
Notes on notes: A critical reflection on clinical writing in music therapy practice
Grundy, I. H. (2024) · British Journal of Music Therapy · doi:10.1177/13594575241240133 · Cited by 1
EEG Lie Detection Evidence and Potential Australian Jurors
Wilcoxson, R., Browne, M., Brooks, N., & DUCKETT, P. S. (2024) · Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology · doi:10.1007/s11896-024-09670-1 · Cited by 1
Shahvaroughi, A., Dyèvre, A., & Otgaar, H. (2025) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-025-01697-x · Cited by 1
The impact of fabrication on recognition memory: An experimental study
Riesthuis, P., Mangiulli, I., Bogaard, G., & Otgaar, H. (2022) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2022.100966 · Cited by 1
Kloft, L. (2021) · Research Publications (Maastricht University) · doi:10.26481/dis.20210623lk
Brand, A.-K., Scholl, A., & Meyerhoff, H. S. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/rct7a
Fuzzy-Trace Theory and Risky Decisions in The Setting of The Digital Economy
Amril, Bambang Tjahjadi, & I Made Narsa (2022) · Quality - Access to Success · doi:10.47750/qas/23.190.06
The Mechanisms of Memory and the Federal Rules of Evidence: A Psychological PerspectivePreprint
Yilmaz, A. S., Shen, K. J., & Wixted, J. T. (2023) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/hv6bs
الذكريات المزيفة: مراجعة للأدبيات العلمية
العتيبيّ, ا. س. (2023) · مجلة البحث العلمي في الآداب · doi:10.21608/jssa.2023.210248.1508
Contradictions in the Study of Emotional False Memory
尹, 浩. (2024) · Advances in Psychology · doi:10.12677/ap.2024.144249
The Impact of Internal and External Influences on Memory and their Relevance to Legal Decisions
(2024) · Frontiers research topics · doi:10.3389/978-2-8325-4996-4
Toma de declaraciones en caso de abuso sexual infantil (ASI): Revisión sistemática
Uribe-Bravo, K. A., Berrocal-Aragonés, G., & Ramos, E. D. (2024) · PSIQUEMAG/ Revista Científica Digital de Psicología · doi:10.18050/psiquemag.v13i2.3108
Hui, W., & Yan, D. (2025) · Advances in Psychological Science · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1042.2025.1617
Nie, A., & Li, M. (2025) · Advances in Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.5709/acp-0462-9
Partner-Provided Inferences Impact Memory
Fischer, Z. H., Reysen, M. B., & Kelly, S. L. (2026) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218261455033
Gauthier, G. M., & Zoellner, L. A. (2026) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2026.102122
The Many Faces of Alcohol Intoxication: Effects on Sexual Behavior, Cognition, and Memory
Davis, D., & Fromme, K. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-15938-0_32
Fundamentals of Memory: Applications to Memory for Sexual Assault
Davis, D., Hart, D. J., Hogan, A. A., & Loftus, E. F. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-15938-0_7
Metadata
- Authors
- Brainerd, C. J., & Reyna, V. F.
- Affiliations
- Cornell University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Brainerd, C. J.
- Venue
- Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2019-03
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 79-86
- ISSN
- 2372-7322 (ISSN-L)
- 2372-7330
- OpenAlex
- W2921733245
- Cited by
- 35
- References
- 27
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 2
- FWCI
- 2.04
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Directorate for Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences (1536238)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Deception detection and forensic psychology
- Social Sciences › Law › Jury Decision Making Processes
- Keywords
- fuzzy-trace theory, false memory, evidence law, eyewitness identification, child witnesses, confession, Federal Rules of Evidence
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
