Rethinking Syncretism: The Unity of the Three Teachings and their Joint Worship in Late-Imperial China

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Jiao Hong concluded that Buddhist sutras comment on Confucius and Mencius, making Confucianism the higher teaching confirmed by the other two.

“Jiao concluded that”

May combine two claims.

Popular texts from the late sixteenth to nineteenth centuries, written by lesser literati for a less educated audience, show less anxiety about crossing sect boundaries and more willingness to let one tradition's models spill into another.

“Popular texts from the late sixteenth century through to the nineteenth, produced by lesser literati for an audience even less schooled than themselves, evince much less anxi, ety about crossing sect boundaries and much greater willingness to let the platitudes and models of one spill over to the next.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Although the unity of the Three Teachings was established by the fourteenth century, no further philosophical work was built on it until the sixteenth century.

“Although the notion of lithe unity of the Three Teachings”

May combine two claims.

In 1703 Abbot Yuanjie built the main hall at Nanchan Cloister, with a south-facing Buddha as the chief statue and Guan Yu as the Buddha's attendant.

“In 1703, Abbot Yuanjie built the main hall at Nanchan Cloister.The chief statue was an imposing south~facing Buddha.His attendant, wielding sword and shield, was Guan Yu, the God of War.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A local Confucian paid to have Guan Yu moved to a separate chamber on the east side of the hall.

“A local Confucian resolved the affront by paying to have Guan Yu removed to a sepa~ rate chamber on the east side of the hall.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Jiao Hong criticized elite attempts to combine and unify the Three Teachings, holding that unity is inherent in the Way itself.

“As for the elite, however, Jiao was critical of those who sought to”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Among elite Qing intellectuals, the project of creative interaction among the Three Teachings was effectively dead.

“Among elite Qing intellectuals, that project was effectively dead.”

May combine two claims.

Deqing and Li Zhi placed one creed above the others, with Deqing calling Buddhism the highest vehicle.

“Although Deqing sought to demonstrate that concepts among the Three Teachings par' alleled each other, like Li Zhi, he set one creed above the others.As he put it, IIBuddhism is the one highest vehicle.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Japanese visitor reasoned that unless the monks conceded to common people's religious tastes, no one would come to the monasteries.

“Without this kind of concession to the religious tastes of the common people, he reasoned, no one would come to the monaster~ ies.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The publisher placed short passages on the unity of the Three Teachings in the Buddhism and Taoism chapter rather than the popular practice chapter; these passages discuss only common content and do not advocate radical doctrinal merging.

“Significantly, I think, it was into the chapter on Buddhism and Taoism, rather than into the chapter on popular practice, that the publisher chose to insert a set of short passages on the unity of the Three Teachings.40 The short texts he included speak only of the common content of the Three Teachings, following the Taizhou intellectual fashion of the 15905, and d~not propose a radical merging of”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Sanjiao yuanliu soushen daquan, originally from the Yuan but titled with the phrase sanjiao yuanliu only at the end of the sixteenth century, opens with three sections tracing the Three Teachings through portraits of figures who emanate, do, or prevent good and evil.

“Roughly contemporary with The Correct Source for a Myriad of Uses is an album of pic .. tures and short texts depicting deities and famous people entitled Sanjiao yuanliu soushen daquan (Compendium for seeking the gods in terms of the histories of the Three Teachings).The original work dates from the Yuan dynasty, but the phrase”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The magistrate approved the removal but said that if he could have had his way he would have removed the Buddha statue and made the cloister a shrine solely to Guan Yu.

“The magistrate approved, though he said that if he could have had his way, he would have removed the Buddha statue and converted the cloister into a shrine consecrated solely to Guan Yu.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Chongfu Monastery outside Hangzhou had an entrance dominated by Emperor Guan's Hall, which was popular because reliable fortunes could be obtained there.

“Chongfu Monastery was located just outside one of the city gates of Hangzhou.Its entrance was dominated by Emperor Guan's Hall, honoring the popular God of War.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A Japanese visitor to China in the 1930s was surprised by shrines to non-Buddhist deities in Buddhist monasteries and explained them by the monks' pragmatic attitude.

“A Japanese visitor to China in the 19JOs was surprised by the shrines to non~Buddhist deities he found in Buddhist monasteries, attributing them to a pragmatic attitude on the part of the monks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Visitors to Emperor Guan's Hall prayed, drew a numbered bamboo tally, and paid a monk for the matching written fortune.

“After offering a prayer to the God of War, the visitor would draw a numbered bamboo tally from a jar and then pay the monk attendant for the match .. ing numbered slip of paper on which a fortune was written out.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The local magistrate was annoyed by Yuanjie's placement of Guan Yu and attributed opportunistic motives to him.

“it annoyed the local magistrate, who imputed opportunistic motives to Yuanjie”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The prefect ordered the Buddha statue moved out of the main hall and into a side chamber.

“The prefect ordered that the Buddha statue be moved out of the hall and into a side chamber.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Most references to Three Teachings Halls are too brief to allow analysis of the forms of worship they hosted.

“Most references to Three Teachings Halls are too brief to permit analysis of the forms of worship they hosted.”

May combine two claims.

In Sanjiao heyi dazhi, Lin Zhaoen explicitly stated that his purpose in using the unity of the Three Teachings was to Confucianize Taoists and Buddhists and to broaden Confucianism as far as possible.

“Lin states unambiguously that his purpose in using the concept is lito Confucianize the Taoists and Buddhists, and broaden Confucianism to its fullest extent,”

• cites [14]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Yu Shenxing acknowledged commonalities among the Three Teachings while recognizing that they had fundamentally different orientations.

“willing to acknowledge the teach, ings' commonalities but recognizing at the same time that they proposed fundamentally different orientations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Confucius statue came from a side hall, while the Lao Zi and Buddha statues appear to have come from outside the shrine.

“The statue of Confucius had been brought in from a side,hall, to which the demoted officials were relegated; those of Lao Zi and the Buddha appear to have come from outside the shrine.”

May combine two claims.

Three Teachings Halls are widely reported in sources only from the sixteenth century, when magistrates began to find them existing independently of Buddhist monasteries.

“Butthey are widely reported in sources only as of the sixteenth century, when magistrates began to discover them existing independently of Buddhist monasteries.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The magistrate ordered the two original official statues returned and the Three Sages moved elsewhere, and he noted that his order was unpopular.

“The magistrate ordered that the worshippers return the two original statues of the officials to their places and move the Three Sages elsewhere.In his record of the matter, he noted that his order was unpopular.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The novel ends with the building of a Three Teachings Hall, sponsored by the local lay elite but carried out with the cooperation of the whole community.

“The novel ends with the building of a Three Teachings Hall, sponsored by the local lay elite but carried out, according to the novelist, with the cooperation of the entire community.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Fictional sources such as Xu jinpingmei and The Romance of the Three Teachings reliably convey actual social practice and community involvement in joint worship.

May combine two claims.

Many Three Teachings Halls predate Lin Zhaoen's cult; for example, Lu Guangchai built one in Pinghu county, Zhejiang, in the 1570s.

“Many predate it; for instance, gongsheng Lu Guangchai (1535,80) built a Three Teachings Hall in Pinghu county, Zhejiang, in the 15708, well before the cult had taken fonn.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A fuller description of a Three Teachings Hall comes from a fictional source, chapter 37 of Xu jinpingmei, the mid-seventeenth-century sequel to Golden Lotus.

“A fuller description of a Three Teachings Hall comes from a fictional source, chapter 37 of Xu jinpingmei, the mid .. seventeenth .. century sequel to the erotic novel, Golden Lotus.”

The quote only partly states this claim.

At the same time as the Yichuan case, another Shaanxi magistrate found a Three Teachings Hall in his jurisdiction and consecrated it to Cangjie.

“For instance, at exactly the same time as the Yichuan case, another Shaanxi magistrate was dismayed to discover a Three Teachings Hall within his jurisdiction.”

May combine two claims.

Another memorial in 1836 refers to Three Teachings Halls in two northern provinces and again asks for imperial proscription.

“Another memorial in 1836 refers to Three Teachings Halls in two northern provinces and again requests imperial proscription.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Lin Zhaoen also said his aim was to make Taoists and Buddhists return to Confucianism.

“lito cause the Taoists and Buddhists to return to Confucianism.”

• cites [14]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Yu Shenxing criticized contemporary scholars for ignoring the basic incompatibility between Confucian and non-Confucian cultivation goals.

“Yet he goes on in the same passage to criticize IIthose scholars of the present age who overlook the basic incompatibility between Confucian and non, Confucian goals of cultivation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Huang Zongxi regarded Ming thinkers who used Neo-Confucianism to embrace Buddhism and Taoism as muddled.

“Ming thinkers who used Neo,Confucianism•to embrace Buddhism and Taoism were simply muddled.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The absence of testimony about people's motives for combining the Three Sages prevents a definitive answer to how joint worship fits the narrow sense of syncretism.

“The absence of testimony regarding the motives people had to combine the Three Sages pre~ vents a definitive answer to this question.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The 1744 memorialist wanted the practices stopped, the Confucius statues moved to schools or Confucian temples, and the halls turned into ordinary monasteries.

“The memorialist wanted these practices ended, the statues of Confucius removed to local schools or Confucian temples, and the halls converted into conventional monasteries.”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

County gazetteers record Three Teachings Halls in Liangxiang, Mianchi, and Dongguang, with dates from the seventeenth to the eighteenth centuries.

“The gazetteer of Liangxiang county, just south of Beijing, indicates that the Three Teachings Hall there dated back at least to the seventeenth century, when it was occupied by a Taoist by the name of True Man Wang.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Yu Shenxing held that the three traditions could not escape what their historical development had made them, so their differences were significant.

“Yu recognized that the three traditions cannot escape what their historical unfolding had made them; hence their differences were not inconsequential.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

For Huang Zongxi, Buddhism and Taoism were lesser teachings whose contents Confucianism could entirely embrace through truths in the Six Classics.

“For Huang, Buddhism and Taoism were lesser teachings whose contents could be entirely embraced by the truths espoused by Confucianism and enshrined in the Six Classics.”

May combine two claims.

A 1744 memorial from Henan calls for suppression of Three Teachings Halls, reporting them in great numbers in all five northern provinces, with nearly six hundred in Henan and thirty-eight in Wuzhi county.

“Powerful testimony to the strength of the Three Teachings Halls in north China comes from a memorial of 1744 from Henan province, which calls for their suppression.”

May combine two claims.

Many Three Teachings Halls were outside Jiangnan and the southeast, and most references the author found come from the north.

“And many were located outside Jiangnan and the southeast.Indeed, most of the references I have been able to find to these halls come from the north.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The 1744 memorialist reports that these halls housed statues of the Buddha, Lao Zi, and Confucius, jointly worshipped by men and women living near the hall.

“The memorialist testi .. fies that these halls housed the statues of the Buddha, Lao Zi, and Confucius, which were jointly worshipped by the men and women living in the vicinity of the hall.”

May combine two claims.

The Qianlong emperor issued an edict against building Three Teachings Halls in response to the 1744 memorial, and later suppression memorials were endorsed by the court.

“The Qianlong emperor issued an edict against the building of Three Teachings Halls in response to the 1744 memorial; later memori~ als of suppression were also endorsed by the court.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Wang Yangming reinterpreted Buddhist elements in terms of higher revelations in the Confucian tradition.

“The best, like Wang Yangming, reinterpreted what they found in Buddhism in terms of the higher revelations given in the Confucian tradition”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Huang Zongxi declared Neo-Confucianism and Buddhism to be as incompatible as ice and ash.

“declaring it and Buddhism to be as incompatible lias ice and ash.”

• cites J6Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The anonymous author's preface laments that students of Buddhism and Taoism outnumbered students of Confucianism ten to one.

“The anony~ mous author in his own preface takes a similar tack, deploring that students of Buddhism and Taoism had come to outnumber students of Confucianism ten to one.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

Huang Yupian said Confucianism alone was needed to foster good rulership above and stability below.

“Confucianism is the only teaching needed to nurture good rulership above and stability below.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The precious scroll is uninterested in formal boundaries among the Three Teachings.

“It is uninter~ ested in their fonnal boundaries”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The fragments Huang Yupian preserved are representative of the precious scroll's overall treatment of the Three Teachings.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In Ding Yaokang's story, a Three Teachings Hall was built on the grounds of a Buddhist convent to resolve property claims by Taoists and Confucians, and each teaching received equal lecture time.

“To resolve the conflict, a Three Teachings Hall was built on the convent grounds and adherents of each teaching were given equal time to lecture in the hall.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The precious scroll is willing to combine the three teachings without concern for violence to their original forms.

“willing to combine the three without worrying about doing violence to their original forms.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The fragments Huang Yupian preserved are representative of the precious scroll's overall treatment of the Three Teachings.

May combine two claims.

State-cult sites, and less frequently Taoist sites, also housed non-Buddhist deities.

“The same was true of state~cult and, less frequently, Taoist sites.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Shengxue tonglun is an eclectic philosophical work preserved in an 1854 edition.

“A text that sits uneasily between popular sectarian belief and elite orthodoxy is Shengxue tonglun (Basic treatises on the learning of the sages), a work of eclectic philosophy pre~ served in an 1854 edition.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The publisher Zhifei Jushi initially refused to read the manuscript because he saw phrases such as 'the Three Sages are one Sage' and 'the Three Teachings are one teaching' as dangerously heterodox.

“declares in an opening notice that he was at first unwilling to read the manuscript because he saw it was full of phrases like”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Wang Ji became indistinguishable from Buddhists.

“others, like Wang Ji, became indistinguishable from Buddhists.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The precious scroll is creatively indifferent to received traditions.

“creatively indifferent to received traditions”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The fragments Huang Yupian preserved are representative of the precious scroll's overall treatment of the Three Teachings.

May combine two claims.

Buddhist monasteries of any size invariably housed non-Buddhist deities, and sometimes had separate shrines to them.

“Buddhist monasteries of any size invariably housed non~Buddhist deities, and sometimes included separate shrines to them.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Ding's story, the statue of Confucius was placed in the center to signal Confucian orthodoxy and the heterodoxy of the other two teachings.

“The statue of Confucius was placed in the center of the triumvirate, so Ding says, to indicate the orthodoxy of Confucianism and the heterodoxy of the other two teachings.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Huang Yupian argued that only Confucianism, unlike other teachings, provides knowledge of how to govern.

“Huang argues that the fundamental difference between the intellectual systems of Confucianism and other teachings is that only the former provides the knowledge of how to govem.”

• cites [41]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The precious scroll does not respect Huang Yupian's distinctions among the sanjiao and treats the three as inherently identical.

“From the fragments Huang preserves, it seems that the precious scroll does not respect Huang's distinctions among the sanjiao and treats the three as inherently the same.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The fragments Huang Yupian preserved are representative of the precious scroll's overall treatment of the Three Teachings.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The anonymous author unambiguously professed allegiance to Confucianism, though he treated the Book of Changes rather than the Analects as its highest expression.

“He is unambiguous in his avowal of allegiance to the Confucian tradition, though, suspiciously, he takes the Book of Changes rather than the Analects as its highest manifestation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The anonymous author aimed to recover the essential truth from which the three traditions began but which they all later lost.

“His goal, he insists, is to rescue the essential truth from which the three traditions started but which they have all subsequently lost.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Devotional practice had become quite eclectic by the Ming dynasty.

“Devotional practice had become quite eclectic by the Ming dynasty”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Zhucheng had a Three Teachings Hall, and Ding Yaokang bought it for his private study in 1633.

“not only did Zhucheng have a Three Teachings Hall, but Ding purchased it for his private study in 1633!”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Joint worship is characteristic of China.

“Although joint worship is a religious practice characteristic of China, to my knowledge, it has gone almost unrecognized and certainly unanalyzed.”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Wang Yangming is often credited with encouraging a syncretic impulse among late-Ming Neo-Confucians, but in maturity he placed Neo-Confucianism above Taoism and Buddhism while acknowledging shared philosophical ground.

“Wang Yangming (1472,1529) is often credited with nourishing a syncretic impulse within late,Ming Neo,Confucians.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Using Guan Yu as an attendant to the Buddha was already an established convention by the Ming.

“Even though yoking Guan Yu for service to the Buddha was already a well~established convention by the Ming”

May combine two claims.

Worship of a Buddhist deity did not exclude worship of other deities, and it was accepted that both could occur.

“but it does indicate that the worship of a Buddhist deity did not preclude the worship of other deities.It was accepted that both could occur.”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Lin Zhaoen considered the Three Teachings intersubstitutable, treating them as separate but equivalent teaching methods valuable insofar as they transmit the Way.

“It remained to the most synthetically minded of late,Ming thinkers, Lin Zhaoen (1517,98), to con, sider their intersubstitutability.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The joint portrayal of figures from all Three Teachings in the album suggests that all three are similar vehicles for the same purpose, equally dedicated to teaching people goodness.

“The joint representation of figures associated with all Three Teachings conveys the impres .. sion that all three are similar vehicles for the same purpose, for all are equally conse .. crated to the task of instructing people in goodness.”

May combine two claims.

The largely illiterate audience of the Compendium, with an eclectic religious consciousness, regarded all figures from Confucius to the Jade Emperor as deities working for goodness and justice and available for supplication.

“His largely illiterate audience, whose eclectic religious consciousness led them to regard all the figures in the portraits-from Confucius to the Jade Emperor-as deities, shen, working for goodness and justice and equally available for supplication in time of need, would have agreed with this view.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The audience of the Compendium was largely illiterate.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Edward Ch'ien observed that for Jiao Hong the Three Teachings were mutually explanatory but not intersubstitutable.

“Edward Ch'ien has expressed this idea by observing that for ]iao Hong, the Three Teachings were”

• cites Edward Ch'ienNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The ecumenical vision of Chinese religion holds that the Three Teachings share pursuit of an unchanging Way, while recognizing them as historically and philosophically distinct systems that complemented but could not replace one another.

“That the Three Teachings have in common the pursuit of a Way that does not vary with the pursuit is the great ecumenical vision of Chinese religion.It is rooted in the recognition that the teachings are historically and philosophically distinct systems of thought that have accommodated and complemented, but cannot be used to replace, each other.”

May combine two claims.

In both the Nanchan and Wang Anshi cases, the solution was to separate the objects of worship physically and give pride of place to the deity for which the site was originally built.

“The solution was thus the same as in the previous case: the physical separation of the objects of worship, with pride of place to the principal deity for which the place of worship had originally been built (and whose cult in this case the state directly supported).”

May combine two claims.

Tao Zongyi's Sanjiao yiyuan uses three tables with identical logical structures but non-overlapping terms, suggesting different discourses over a unitary reality.

“What Tao provides instead is a set of three tables of concepts mapping out logical structures for each of the teachings.”

• Also stated in: § THE THREE TEACHINGS INTO THE YUAN DYNASTY · plain

  “The structures of the chans are identical, but their terminologies do not overlap.”

May combine two claims.

The Yuan formulation of unity among the Three Teachings did not come directly from Mongol interests, though it may have been shaped by them.

“This creative new formulation of a kind of unity among the Three Teachings in the Yuan dynasty did not derive directly from Mongol interests; but it may have been shaped by them”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The Mongol emperors regarded all three teachings as equally foreign and were less willing to exclude one in favor of another.

May combine two claims.

In late-imperial China the Three Teachings coexisted harmoniously, were equal in principle and access, and could interact freely.

“The term condominium connotes that the Three Teachings lived together in late' imperial China with a considerable degree of harmony: equal in principle, equally available to worshippers, and free to associate and interact in a multitude of ways.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Neo-Confucianism, through its engagement with Buddhism, stripped Buddhism of its influence over the elite.

“As Jonathan Haeger has argued, Neo~Confucianism succeeded through its interaction with Buddhism to rob the latter of its influence over the elite.”

• cites Jonathan HaegerNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Because the state recognized Buddhism as non-heterodox, the magistrate could not remove the Buddha as he wished.

“Given the state's recognition of Buddhism as a non,heterodox religion, however, the magistrate could not have his way.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The state's recognition of Buddhism as non-heterodox was sufficient to prevent a local magistrate from removing a Buddha statue.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The magistrate was probably facing opposition from Yuanjie, likely from subscribers to the hall, and perhaps from worshippers at the cloister.

“Presumably he was meeting opposition, certainly from Yuanjie, probably also from the people who had subscribed to the building of the hall in the first place, and perhaps also from those who worshipped at the cloister.”

May combine two claims.

Editor Yu Xiangdou separated orthodox from popular religion out of deference to elite convention but did not exclude popular activities, which the paper treats as evidence of their popularity.

“Editor Yu Xiangdou distinguished orthodox and popular in this fashion, out of deference to the elite convention of separating the world of formal, politically legitimate religious undertakings from the world of informal religious activities which was ever vulnerable to the charge of heterodoxy.He does not, however, go so far as to exclude the latter from consideration, which I take to be evidence”

May combine two claims.

The compiler of the Compendium did not syncretically combine the Three Teachings but wove them together in a manner suggesting indifference to doctrinal distinctions.

“The compiler of The Compendium for Seeking the Gods has not syncretically combined the Three Teachings in the album; but he has woven them together in a way that sug.. gests an indifference to doctrinal distinctions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The problem of sanjiao heyi was an elite intellectual concern, while ordinary people were chiefly concerned with obtaining help from deities.

“The”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Ordinary people were chiefly concerned with gaining assistance from deities rather than with doctrinal unity.

May combine two claims.

The content and arrangement of the Wanyong zhengzong indicate that the unity of the Three Teachings was an intellectual concern, not a popular one, belonging to organized religion and defined doctrine rather than everyday piety.

“Their content and editorial arrangement suggest that the unity of the Three Teachings was regarded as an issue of concern principally to the intellectuals and did not speak to the common peo, pie.It belonged to the organic world of organized religion and defined doctrine, not to the mechanical world of everyday piety.”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Zhu Yuanzhang's essay expresses ecumenical toleration, not a syncretic blueprint, accepting that all Three Teachings should flourish equally because each offers access to truth.

“The emperor's essay reads more as a statement of ecumenical toleration than as a blue' print for syncretism.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Liu Mi's position was ecumenical rather than syncretic: the Three Teachings differ outwardly but share an inner meaning.

“Liu's view is ecumeni, cal rather than syncretic.”

May combine two claims.

Before the Yuan, the Three Teachings were regarded as three distinct discourses that were not interchangeable or reducible to unity, and each defined itself antithetically against the others.

“But they were explicitly san (”

• Also stated in: § Rethinking Syncretism: The Unity of the Three Teachings and their Joint Worship in Late-Imperial China · plain

  “three”

• Also stated in: § THE THREE TEACHINGS INTO THE YUAN DYNASTY · plain

  “To the degree that each defined itself in relation to the other two, it did so antithetically.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Under a narrow conception, syncretism seldom occurs because reconciling distinct religious systems is difficult and their dissonance resists erasure.

“Reconciliation is hard to achieve; or, to put it more bluntly, syncretism, as I am conceiving of it, rarely happens.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Logical contradictions inevitably arise between distinct religious systems.

May combine two claims.

Deqing, despite inclusivist intentions, explained his career through a compartmentalist model of progressive study from Confucianism to Taoism to Buddhism, with understanding unfolding in three stages.

“Inclusivist in his intention, Deqing fell back on a compartmentalist model to explain his own career, saying that he came to Buddhism through a progressive study first of Confucianism, then Taoism.”

May combine two claims.

By the early eighteenth century the Qing state had raised Guan Yu to imperial rank and was elevating his cult to a level comparable with Confucius.

“By this time the Qing state had raised Guan Yu to the rank of emperor and was in the process of elevating his cult on a par with that of Confucius.”

May combine two claims.

Wang Yangming's household image is compartmentalist, and his aim was to overcome compartmentalization with an inclusivist vision that favored Neo-Confucianism while being sympathetic to Buddhism and Taoism.

“The image is literally compartmentalist.”

• Also stated in: § THE UNITY OF THE THREE TEACHINGS IN THE MING · plain

  “Wang, however, was committed to overcoming that com, partmentalization and establishing an inclusivist vision that was sympathetic to Buddhism and Taoism but accorded Neo,Confucianism the higher place.”

May combine two claims.

Suppression was not thorough, because many local gazetteers continued to record Three Teachings Halls even after calls for their suppression.

“Suppression was not thorough, how~ ever, since many local gazetteers continued to record the presence of Three Teachings Halls even after calls for their suppression.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The halls housed the Buddhist-Taoist-Confucian condominium more snugly than any other late-imperial religious institution.

“The least we can say is that the halls housed the Buddhist~Taoist~Confucian condominium more snugly than any other late~ imperial religious institution.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

The concept of syncretism assumes a demand for doctrinal purity more suited to a revealed, hierarchically policed, and ecumenically unsympathetic religion such as Christianity.

“The very con~ cept seems to assume an imperative for doctrinal purity more appropriate to a religion like Christianity that is based on revelation, policed by a church hierarchy, and doctri~ nally unsympathetic to ecumenical interaction.”

May combine two claims.

Joint worship suggests a condominium, a living together of the Three Teachings in Chinese religious life, not their merging and reconciliation.

“Their joint worship suggests a condominium, a living together of the Three Teachings in Chinese religious life, not their merging and reconciliation.”

May combine two claims.

Although the spread of Three Teachings Halls from the mid-Ming occurred alongside intellectual convergence of the Three Teachings, the greater impulse for joining the Three Sages in worship came from below and reflected a growing popular desire to use all three traditions.

“Although the spread of the Three Teachings Halls from the mid~Ming forward occurred in tandem with the tendency of the Three Teachings to be drawn together intellectually, I would argue that the greater impulse for joining the Three Sages in worship derived from below and reflected a grow~ ing popular desire to tap the resources of all three.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

The author's impression is that placing the three statues together signals mutuality rather than syncretism.

“My impression is that the collocation of the three statues signals mutuality rather than syncretism.”

May combine two claims.

Thinkers such as Li Zhi and Lin Zhaoen used sanjiao heyi formulations to challenge narrow academic orthodoxy and to make learning serve self-understanding rather than self-promotion.

“Passionate thinkers like Li Zhi or Lin Zhaoen invoked sanjiao heyi formulations to challenge the narrow academic orthodoxy of their peers and shake them into realizing that the goal of learning was self-understanding, not self-promotion.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The author suspects that intellectuals among the people would not have infused sectarian thought with syncretic conventions meant to challenge the hegemony of established religions.

“Moreover, I suspect that intellectuals among the people would not have infused sectarian thought with syncretic conventions intended to challenge the hegemony of the established religions.”

May combine two claims.

Combination appears not to have disturbed worshippers; it seems to have been regarded as increasing the deities' efficacy.

“Combination appears not to have disturbed worshippers; in fact, it would seem that combination was regarded as enhancing the efficacy of the deities.”

May combine two claims.

Neither Lin Zhaoen nor Li Zhi represents mainstream Ming Neo-Confucian thought on the Three Teachings.

“Neither Lin Zhaoen nor Li Zhi is representative of mainstream Ming Neo~Confucian thinking on the subject of the Three Teachings.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Only in the sectarian world might those visions have actually merged into one.

“It was only down in the sectarian world that those visions might have actually merged into one.”

May combine two claims.

For Lin Zhaoen, Confucianism is the highest teaching and controls the unity into which Taoism and Buddhism must converge.

“Confucianism remains the highest teaching and dominates the unity in which the other two teachings must converge.”

May combine two claims.

Joint worship was a way of improving efficacy and increasing human odds against the universe.

“Joint worship was a matter of improving efficacy, increasing human odds against the universe.”

May combine two claims.

Joint worship was popular enough that people in one county supported thirty-eight halls and people in another changed the statuary of a state-cult shrine in favor of joint worship.

“Second, joint worship was sufficiently popular to induce the people of one county to support thirty~eight halls, and the people of another to alter the arrangement of statuary in a state~cult shrine in favor of joint worship.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

It is arguable whether either Li Zhi or Lin Zhaoen understood the Three Teachings in a truly syncretic way.

“According to the terms of this essay, it is arguable whether either of them understood the Three T eaehings in a way that was truly syncretic.”

May combine two claims.

Joint worship offended magistrates' ideas about good order in religious institutions and pointed toward heterodoxy and the threat of subversion.

“Joint worship offended magisterial maglstra t 'ons about the good order of religious institutions.That way lay heterodoxy and expecta 1 .the ill,defined threat of subversion that heterodoxy implied to the state.”

May combine two claims.

Even if joint worship did not dissolve the boundaries among the three traditions, it treated those boundaries as insignificant in the cosmic order.

“If joint worship did not dissolve the houndaries among the three, it regarded them as insignificant in the cosmic order of things.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Shigematsu's inquiry centered on Lin Zhaoen's cult, which preached joint worship of the Three Sages in Fujian and spread through the region.

“The focus of his inquiry was the cult of Lin Zhaoen, who preached the joint worship of the Three Sages in Fujian and whose influence spread throughout the region.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Lin Zhaoen aimed at a total synthesis of the Three Teachings.

“At one level, Lin Zhaoen's goal was total synthesis.”

May combine two claims.

Although the Three Teachings were distinct, they were not exclusive, so they could mingle without merging and coexist ecumenically rather than reconcile their differences.

“Although the Three Teachings were distinct, they were far from exclusive; as such, they were better able to mingle without having to merge, to coexist in an ecumenical environment rather than reconcile their differences.”

May combine two claims.

The redesign implies that the Three Sages were thought to have powers greater than the two officials and therefore to be more worthy of worship.

“Second, it implies that the Three Sages were regarded as having powers that exceeded”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Shigematsu believed that Three Teachings Halls were mostly located in central and south China.

“Shigematsu believed that the Three Teachings Halls were mostly found in central and south China.”

May combine two claims.

If joint worship falls short of syncretism, it still rests on a social base of believers for whom syncretism was a natural tendency.

“If joint worship falls short of syncretism, it rests nonetheless on a social base of believers for whom syncretism was a natural tendency.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The philosophers could not devise formulations much beyond the basic idea that truth may be absolute while the visions through which it is glimpsed remain relative.

“The philosophers proved incapable of devising formulations that went much beyond the basic idea that, while the truth may be absolute, the visions through which it can be glimpsed remain relative.”

May combine two claims.

Li Zhi and Lin Zhaoen were eclectic in borrowing gestures and language, ecumenical in tolerating other teachings, but inclusivist in holding Confucianism to be the highest representation of truth.

“They were eclec~ tic in their borrowings of gestures and language, ecumenical in their toleration of other teachings, but incl~ivist in their belief that Confucianism stood as the highest repre~ sentation of truth.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Shigematsu Shunsho traced Three Teachings Halls to the Song dynasty, when some Buddhist monasteries built them as concessions to popular taste.

“In an essay published in 1939, Shigematsu Shunsho traced the origin of such halls to the Song dynasty, when some Buddhist monasteries built them as conces, sions to popular taste.”

• cites [56]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Joint worship shaped inherited traditions to evolving devotional ends and transcended both the elite's theoretical compartments for the Three Teachings and the political order that dictated distinctions among them.

“It was a way of shaping given traditions to evolving devotional ends and transcending the compartments into which the elite theorized the Three Teachings, as well as transcending the political order which dictated the distinctions among them.”

May combine two claims.

The early seventeenth-century fictional source The Romance of the Three Teachings conveys the same impression of local community involvement and shows Lin Zhaoen's influence.

“The same impression is conveyed in a fictional source from the early seventeenth century, The Romance of the Three Teachings, which betrays the influence of Lin Zhaoen.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Fictional sources such as Xu jinpingmei and The Romance of the Three Teachings reliably convey actual social practice and community involvement in joint worship.

May combine two claims.

The desire to combine deities from different teachings could go further and caused great distress to the state.

“But the urge to combine the deities from different teach, ings could be carried further, greatly to the distress of the state.”

May combine two claims.

Popular belief made the challenge to established religions both possible and powerful.

“Popular belief made this challenge not only possible but powerful.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Each deity was present so that his tradition could be called on in the struggle to gain divine help against hostile elements of daily life, yet each remained distinct.

“Each was present to ensure that his particular religious tradition could be drawn on in the struggle to enlist the aid of the gods against the hostile elements of everyday life.Yet each remained distinct.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Until more is learned about the beliefs and intentions behind patronage of Three Teachings Halls, we must stop short of calling joint worship syncretism.

“Until we discover more about the beliefs and intentions motivating the patronage of Three Teachings Halls, we will have to stop short of declaring joint~worship syncretism.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Seventeenth-century intellectuals would not grant even the limited common ground that Yu Shenxing allowed.

“Seventeenth'century intellectuals would not concede even this much common ground to the Three Teachings.”

May combine two claims.

Joint worship was practiced in many places across China, both in the Yangzi Valley economic heartland and in less developed northern regions.

“First of all, it is apparent that joint worship was carried out in many places throughout China, both in the economic heanland of the Yangzi Valley and in the less developed regions of the north.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Basic Treatises conveys a strong sense that the three teachings are syncretically interchangeable.

“Yet there is a strong sense in the writing that the three are syncretically intersubstitutable”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The sectarian view of religion appears to seek a radical synthesis of the Three Teachings.

“The sectarian view of religion would thus appear to be interested in a radical synthesis of the Three Teachings.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The fragments Huang Yupian preserved are representative of the precious scroll's overall treatment of the Three Teachings.

May combine two claims.

Because folk religion was not obliged to observe the doctrinal exclusiveness that orthodox Confucians considered essential to elite rule, it could be lay-based, heterodox, and radically syncretic.

“Having no obligation to observe the doctrinal exclusiveness that orthodox Confucians felt was essential to the ideological structure of elite rule, folk religion was free to be”

• cites [47]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Basic Treatises, Confucianism is given pride of place to conceal what the state might see as a subversive tendency in the author's thought.

“and that pride of place is given to Confucianism to disguise what the state might evalu~ ate as a subversive tendency in the author's thinkinJZ.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

The author's statement that every sentence in the Buddhist patriarch's and Master Lao's books speaks of the Way of the Book of Changes suggests he may have regarded Confucianism as the highest of the Three Teachings.

“The author's assertion that”

• cites [46]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Joint worship has gone almost unrecognized and certainly unanalyzed.

“Although joint worship is a religious practice characteristic of China, to my knowledge, it has gone almost unrecognized and certainly unanalyzed.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Despite its protestations, Basic Treatises on the Learning of the Sages is fundamentally an ecumenical, perhaps syncretic, book.

“Despite these extravagant protestations, intended perhaps to protect the book from pro~ scription, Basic Treatises on the Learning of the Sages is at heart an ecumenical, perhaps even syncretic, book.”