Recruitment Revisited: the Commissioned Civil Service of Later Han

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Accounts of regular ministers and lesser-rank officials in Later Han sources are incomplete and often confused.

“Accounts of regular ministers and those of lesser rank are incomplete and often confused, however, while biographical texts and inscriptions must be treated with caution.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Depending on circumstances, one or more of the three stages could be bypassed, but the common pattern followed nomination from commanderies and kingdoms.

“Depending upon circumstances, one or more of these could be bypassed, but the common pattern was the procedure which followed nomination from commanderies and kingdoms throughout the empire.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Candidates titled Filial and Incorrupt came to the capital, underwent preliminary assessment, and then joined a corps of Gentlemen.

“As candidates with this formulaic title came to the capital they were subject to preliminary assessment, then joined a corps of Gentlemen (郎 lang).”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

It is not always easy to tell whether an item in the sources is presented as normal procedure or as exceptional.

“Second, it is not always easy to tell whether an item is presented as part of normal procedure, or whether it was considered exceptional and recorded for that reason.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Members of the Three Corps formally served as bodyguards, but their duties were largely nominal or ceremonial; the purpose of the Gentlemen was to be judged on character and capacity.

“Formally speaking, members of these Three Corps (三署 sanshu) served as bodyguards to the emperor, both in the palace and as escorts on tour, but such duties were largely nominal or ceremonial; Gentlemen were there to be judged on character and capacity.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Later Han's imperial bureaucracy contained roughly 150,000 men.

“Though the imperial service of Later Han employed some 150,000 men”

• cites TongdianNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Little is known about the procedures for probation and supervision, which varied over time.

“We know little about the procedures for probation and supervision, which varied over time.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Few men reached high position through the Imperial University.

“Few reached high position through the Imperial University.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Junior office did not carry a commission in the bureaucracy, nor did it create an expectation of such attainment through ordinary promotion.

“Junior office did not entail a commission in the bureaucracy, nor any expectation of such attainment by ordinary promotion.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Most men who received commissions were recommended by officials responsible for their local communities and then underwent probation at the capital before receiving a substantive post.

“Most men who received commissions were recommended by the officials in charge of their local communities, and were subject to a period of probation at the capital before receiving a substantive post.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In his edict of 36, Emperor Guangwu ordered the Excellencies, the Minister of the Household, and provincial heads to nominate one man of Abundant Talent each year, and these men were accepted directly into the commissioned civil service.

“that the Excellencies, the Minister of the Household and the heads of provinces should each year nominate one man of Abundant Talent (茂才 maocai), and these were accepted directly into the commissioned civil service.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Almost half of the 175 candidates whose previous careers are known had served as local officers of their commandery or province; many held senior positions such as Registrar and Officer of Merit, and several had been Investigators.

“Almost half the 175 candidates whose previous careers are known had served as local officers of their commandery or province; many had held senior and trusted positions such as Registrar (主簿 zhubu: Master of Records) and Officer of Merit (功曹 gongcao: Officer of the Bureau of Merit), 45 and several had been Investigators (都郵 duyu), supervising subordinate”

• cites [45]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The ren system was in force during much of Former Han, was ended on grounds of favouritism, was restored by Emperor Guangwu, and was maintained through Later Han.

“The system had been in force during much of Former Han, but was ended on grounds of favouritism.It was nonetheless restored by Emperor Guangwu and was maintained through Later Han.47”

• cites [47]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Of some thirty thousand men who joined the Three Corps during the dynasty, only 170 cases record the first appointment, and the accounts are not always clear.

“Of some thirty thousand men who must have joined the Three Corps during the course of the dynasty, there are only 170 cases where we are told of this first appointment, and the accounts are not always clear.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Recipients of direct grants followed the same probation and assessment as other Gentlemen, and several rose to high office; grants went to imperial clan or consort families, outstanding officials, and kinfolk of loyal or unjustly treated men.

“The recipients thereafter followed the same process of probation and assessment as other Gentleman, and several rose to high office.Some grants were made to members of the imperial clan or consort families, others to outstanding officials, and some to the kinfolk of men who had shown exceptional loyalty or had been unjustly treated.48”

• cites [48]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Four men titled Members of the Suite were involved in calendrical calculations in the Court Astronomer's office; they held substantive low-rank positions and were not candidates for commissions.

“In what appears to have been a separate arrangement, at various times during the dynasty four men with title as Members of the Suite are recorded as being involved in calendrical calculations in the office of the Court Astronomer.”

• Also stated in: § 29 · hedged

  “These men evidently held substantive position, albeit at low rank, as experts in that technical office; it does not appear that they were candidates for commissions”

• cites HHS 92/2:3027Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites HHS 92/2:3034Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites HHS 92/2:3030Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Heads of commanderies and provinces were primarily civilians, though they were responsible for dealing with local bandits and rebels, and some died in the field.

“Heads of commanderies and provinces were responsible for dealing with local bandits and rebels -劉寵 about 140 (the Xu Han shu of Sima Biao 5:9a); and Fan Pang 范滂 about 160 (HHS 67/57:2202).and a disconcerting number met their death in the field -but they were primarily civilians”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The classification Flourishing Talent had been used occasionally in Former Han, but the name was changed to avoid the taboo on Guangwu's personal name, and the nomination became a regular requirement.

“The classification of Flourishing Talent (秀才 xiucai) had been used on occasion during Former Han, but the name was now changed to avoid”

• Also stated in: § 29 · plain

  “taboo on Guangwu's personal name and the nomination became a regular requirement.49”

• cites [49]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Although some proposed abolishing the second examination, Huang Qiong defended its value, and the Secretariat's role continued to develop for the rest of the dynasty.

“Some suggested that the second test might be abolished, but Huang Qiong argued its value, and the role of the Secretariat developed through the rest of the dynasty.40”

• cites [40]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The majority of recorded first appointments, more than ninety, took office in the provinces, most as county magistrates, some as assistants in commandery units, some as Inspector of a province, and a few went to a royal court or to Luoyang.

“The majority of those recorded, more than ninety, took office in the provinces, most as county magistrates, some as assistants in commandery units, some as Inspector of a province, 23 and a few went to a royal court or to the county office of Luoyang, the imperial capital.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The names and careers of middle-ranking military men are seldom mentioned in the sources.

“Unfortunately, the names and the careers of such middle-ranking military men are seldom mentioned.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Members of the Suite ranked at Two Hundred shi, below the Gentlemen of the Three Corps, and during all of Later Han no senior official is recorded as having gained his initial commission solely through such an appointment.

“At Two Hundred shi, however, they ranked below the Gentleman of the Three Corps, and during all of Later Han no senior official is recorded as having gained his initial commission solely by such an appointment.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In provincial emergencies, men who had shown ability might receive temporary commissions, and soldiers of the imperial army could be promoted from the ranks.

“In time of emergency in the provinces, men who had shown their ability might be given temporary commissions, 26 and soldiers of the imperial army could surely be promoted from the ranks.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Reporting Officer program was halted in 163 after Excellency Yang Bing argued it wasted resources and encouraged false expectations among men of limited ability; it was revived about 170.

“The program was halted in 163, when the Excellency Yang Bing claimed the additional recruitment”

• Also stated in: § 29 · plain

  “wasted resources and encouraged false expectations amongst men of limited ability; it was revived, however, about 170.46”

• cites [46]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Expectant Appointee system was common in Former Han; early in his reign Emperor Guangwu awarded the title to Huan Tan and Ma Yuan, and during the rest of Later Han only Ding Hong is recorded with such an appointment.

“The system had been common in Former Han, and early in his reign Emperor Guangwu awarded the title Expectant Appointee to the philosopher Huan Tan 桓譚 (HHS 28/18A:956) and the future great general Ma Yuan 馬援 (HHS 24/14:830).During all the rest of Later Han, however, the only person recorded with such an appointment is the future Excellency Ding Hong”

• cites HHS 28/18A:956Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites HHS 24/14:830Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Beside the regular nomination process, the government on various occasions called for recommendations from senior ministers at the capital, provincial officials, and sometimes fief holders; each summons differed in terminology and officials involved.

“Beside the regular process of nomination and appointment discussed above, on various occasions the government made a call for recommendations from senior ministers at the capital, from officials in the provinces and sometimes from the holders of fiefs.Each summons was different, both in terminology and the officials [25] involved.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The ruler could issue an imperial invitation to a particular man, which was the most honourable and most exceptional means of entry to the civil service.

“could issue an imperial invitation to a particular man.This was obviously the most honourable means of entry to the civil service, and naturally the most exceptional.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

At the lower end, some men received their commission through an imperial letter, which allowed them to take minor provincial posts; Sun Jian is an example.

“At a lower end of the scale, some men received their commission simply through an imperial letter (詔書 zhao shu), which allowed them to take minor posts in the provinces.Sun Jian 孫堅, for example, future general in the civil wars at the end of Han, distinguished himself against rebels in the region of the lower Yangzi during the early 170s; he received an imperial letter, then served as an assistant”

• cites [71]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Yang Hou, Fan Ying, and He Chun, celebrated hermit scholars of divination, all refused invitations from Emperor He and Emperor An's government, but were eventually persuaded to attend Emperor Shun's court.

“Among the latter were Yang Hou 楊厚/ 后, Fan Ying 樊英 and He Chun 賀純, celebrated as hermit scholars of divination; all three refused invitations from Emperor He and the government of Emperor An, but were eventually persuaded to attend the court of Emperor Shun.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In 114, Dowager Deng sought men who were Reliable and Generous or Simple and Straightforward, one in each category, from senior officials at court and in the provinces and from fief holders; there could have been as many as five hundred nominees.

“In 114 the Dowager sought men who were Reliable and Generous or Simple and Straightforward, one in each category, from senior officials at the court [27] and in the provinces, and from the holders of fiefs: HHS 5:221.There could have been as many as five hundred nominees.”

• cites HHS 5:221Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Imperial Secretariat provided another route to commissioned rank; Masters of Writing were commissioned officials, and junior posts as Gentlemen were filled by Filial and Incorrupt candidates transferred from the Three Corps.

“The Imperial Secretariat (尚書 shangshu) provided another route to commissioned rank.56 The Masters of Writing, heads of bureaus [24] in the Secretariat, were commissioned officials, and junior posts as Gentlemen (尚書郎 shangshu lang) were filled by Filial and Incorrupt”

• cites [56]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Clerks in the Excellencies' offices were on track for commissioned appointment, and many references show men joining these offices and then transferring directly to substantive office as county magistrate, Inspector, or Administrator.

“At the same time, besides their supervisory responsibilities the clerks themselves were on track for commissioned appointment.There are many references to men who joined the offices of the Excellencies and then transferred directly to substantive office at the capital or in the provinces, as a county magistrate, Inspector of a province, or even Administrator of a commandery.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The usual pattern for men brought by a general summons was that the nominee came to the capital, was received in audience or presented a memorial, and was assessed for employment; some were appointed directly, including Academicians, while others became clerks to the Excellencies or Gentlemen under probation.

“This was the usual pattern for men brought forward by a general summons: the nominee came to the capital, was received in audience or presented a memorial, and was assessed for employment.Some were appointed directly to office, including posts as Academicians at the Imperial University; others, as above, became clerks to the Excellencies or Gentlemen under probation.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The category Worthy and Good, Sincere and Upright was generally used in combination, was recorded most frequently, and was used throughout the dynasty.

“Worthy and Good, Sincere and Upright (賢良方正 xianliang fangzheng), generally in combination, though there are references to Worthy and Good and to Sincere and Upright alone, perhaps as abbreviations.This is the combination of qualities that is recorded most frequently, and it was used throughout the dynasty.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Fan Ye's Discussion mentions additional Later Han categories: Reliable and Honest, High Standards, Absolute Purity, Simple and Straightforward, and Reliable and Generous.

“Besides these, the Discussion (論 lun) presented by Fan Ye at the end of the chapter containing the biographies of Zuo Xiong and Huang Qiong, chiefs of the Secretariat under Emperor Shun, mentions several additional categories used by Later Han.These include Reliable and Honest (敦扑/撲 dunpu), High Standards (高節 gaojie), Absolute Purity (清白 qingbo), Simple and Straightforward (質直 zhizhi), and Rel”

• cites [59]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Favoured gentlemen were often brought to court in an official carriage, and sometimes a comfortable carriage was sent as a mark of greater respect.

“The favoured gentleman was often brought to court in an official carriage (公車 gongche); sometimes, as mark of even greater respect, a”

• cites [65]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Emperor He interviewed candidates in person, and they were then appointed to clerical offices or to probationary posts as Gentlemen.

“We are told that Emperor He indeed interviewed the candidates in person, and they were then appointed to clerical offices or to probationary posts as Gentlemen.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Dowager Deng Sui, widowed consort of Emperor He, ruled as regent from 106 to 121 and was most energetic in searches for candidates.

“The Dowager Deng Sui 鄧綏, widowed consort of Emperor He who ruled as regent from 106 to 121, was most energetic in such searches.”

It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.

In 107, Dowager Deng sought candidates in several categories, with one in each category to be nominated by the Excellencies and Ministers at the capital and by commandery heads in the provinces; this indicates recruitment of more than six hundred men.

“In 107, now regent for Emperor An, she sought candidates who were Worthy and Good, Sincere and Upright, Able to Speak Directly and Admonish Unflinchingly, together with men who were Skilled in the Way (有道術之士 you daoshu zhi shi), who Understood the Art of Government (明政術之士 ming zhengshu zhi shi), and could Comprehend Matters Ancient and Modern (達 古今 da gujin).One in each category was to be”

• cites HHS 5:206Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Each of the three Excellencies maintained an office with twenty to thirty Senior and Junior Clerks, aided by about thirty Foreman Clerks and others, with bureaus overseeing the whole imperial administration.

“The Treatise of Officials notes that each of the three Excellencies maintained an office (開府 kaifu), with twenty to thirty Senior and Junior Clerks (掾/史 yuan/yuanshi and 屬 shu: department heads and associates).Aided by some thirty Foreman Clerks (令史 lingshi) and others, they had charge of bureaus (曹 cao) which oversaw the whole imperial administration.51”

• cites [51]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The initial posting for Abundant Talent men was about Six Hundred shi, the same as those transferred from the Three Corps, but Abundant Talent candidates required no probation.

“The initial posting for men of Abundant Talent was at rank about Six Hundred shi, the same as those transferred from the Three Corps, but Abundant Talent candidates required no probation.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In 119, the Excellencies were ordered to select ten men from their offices who were either First Class or Able to Govern Generously and Bring Prosperity; the Minister of the Household and the Generals of the Household were to recommend fifty more men, either Filial and Incorrupt candidates or Gentlemen of the Three Corps, who were Able to Make Broad Plans or held to the Highest Standard of Pure

“In 119 the Excellencies were ordered to select ten men from their offices who were either First Class 61 or were Able to Govern Generously and Bring Prosperity (能惠利牧養者 neng huili muyang zhe).The Minister of the Household and the Generals of the Household were to recommend a further fifty men, either Filial and Incorrupt candidates or Gentlemen of the Three Corps, who were Able to Make Broad Plans”

• cites HHS 5:229Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Director of Retainers controlled the capital province and ranked close to a minister; Inspectors of regular provinces were only Six Hundred shi and seldom held executive power, but they supervised several commandery units and had a wide group of potential candidates.

“The Director of Retainers, who controlled the capital province, was ranked close to a minister, and although Inspectors of regular provinces were only Six Hundred shi and seldom held executive power, they did supervise several commandery units and had a wide group of potential candidates to draw upon.”

The quote only partly states this claim.

Some categories of recommendation could be applied to a junior officer or an Excellency's staff member and led to substantive office, including Presenting Advantageous Proposals and Qualified to Deal with Complex Affairs.

“Some categories of recommendation could be applied to a junior officer or a member of the staff of an Excellency and led to substantive office.These included Presenting Advantageous Proposals (便宜 bianyi) and”

It may state two separate claims as one.

According to the records, Dowager Deng issued more special calls for candidates than any other Later Han ruler, possibly as many as all others combined.

“According to these records, the Dowager issued more special calls for candidates than any other ruler of Later Han, and possibly as many as all the others combined.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In the late 70s, Director Zheng Hong argued that low ranks and salaries in the Secretariat discouraged good men, and persuaded the emperor that departing Gentlemen should be eligible for One Thousand shi posts and Foreman Clerks could become full county magistrates.

“During the late 70s, however, the Director of the Secretariat Zheng Hong 鄭弘/宏 argued that though ranks and salaries in the Secretariat were low it was an institution of great importance, and the poor prospects for promotion discouraged good men from joining.He persuaded the emperor that departing Gentlemen should be eligible for posts of One Thousand shi, while Foreman Clerks could become full”

• cites HHS 33/23:1155Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Dowager Deng kept her kinsmen at a distance, refused to transfer power to Emperor An even after he came of age in 109, and controlled the government until her death.

“The Dowager Deng kept her kinsmen at a distance, but she refused to transfer power to Emperor An even after he formally came of age in 109, and she continued to control the government until her death.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In the edict of 36, Emperor Guangwu required the Excellencies to present two staff members each year as Incorrupt Officers, the Minister of the Household three, the Ministers of Justice and Finance two each, and one candidate from each other ministry and two from generals in command of troops.

“In his edict of 36 discussed above, 53 Emperor Guangwu required the Excellencies not only to nominate men of Abundant Talent, but also to present two members of staff each year as Incorrupt Officers (廉吏 lianli).He placed the same obligation upon the Minister of the Household for three nominees, upon the Minister of Justice (廷尉 tingwei: Commandant of Justice) and the Minister of Finance (大司農 da sin”

• cites [53]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Each year the heads of commandery units were required to propose men as Filial and Incorrupt.

“Each year the heads of commandery units were required to propose men as Filial and Incorrupt (孝廉 xiaolian: Filially Pious and Incorrupt).”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Bielenstein suggested that the total number of officials of all ranks at Luoyang was about 30,000.

“Bielenstein has suggested that the total number of officials of all ranks at Luoyang was about 30,000”

• cites Bielenstein, Lo-yang in Later Han TimesNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The Treatise of Officials in Hou Han shu is much more comprehensive than the first part of the Table of the Hundred Officials in Han shu.

“The first part of the Table of the Hundred Officials, Excellencies and Ministers (百官公卿表 boguan gongqing biao) of Han shu [HS 17A] lists the major offices of Former Han, but the Treatise of Officials (百 官志 boguan zhi) of Hou Han shu is far more comprehensive.”

• cites HS 17ANot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites HHS 114/24-118/28Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The total figure for Later Han officials is supported by a near-contemporary estimate for the end of Former Han.

“Though the total is supported by a near-contemporary estimate for the end of Former Han”

• cites HS 19A:743Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

It is likely that three years was the normal probation period, with annual promotion by one rank, and that the Three Corps contained six or seven hundred men.

“It seems likely that three years was the normal period of probation, with annual promotion by one rank, and that while numbers might change according to intake and passing out the total in the Three Corps was six or seven hundred.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Biographical texts and inscriptions from Later Han must be treated with caution.

“while biographical texts and inscriptions must be treated with caution.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Later Han possessed a well-formed recruitment system that selected competent men from groups whose involvement was valuable to the regime.

“In similar fashion and on the basis of experience, Later Han had a well-formed system of recruitment, choosing competent men to serve the state from among groups whose involvement was valuable to the regime.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

A Former Han edict required the Minister of the Household to grade cadets according to the Four Virtues, and Emperor Guangwu confirmed this system.

“but an edict of Former Han had required the Minister of the Household to grade cadets according to these qualities, and Emperor Guangwu confirmed the system.”

• cites HS 9:287Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

High office in Later Han was reserved for men who held an imperial commission, which allowed them to attain power and authority.

“High office was reserved for those with an imperial commission, on which basis they could rise to power and authority.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

One assessment was based on the Four Types of Virtuous Conduct: Simple and Honest, Sincere and Generous, Humble and Yielding, and Good Behaviour.

“One assessment was based upon the Four Types of Virtuous Conduct (四行 sixing) or Four Virtues: Simple and Honest (質檏 zhipu), Sincere and Generous (敦厚 dunhou), Humble and Yielding (遜讓 xunrang) and Good Behaviour (節儉 jiejian).”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

If the one-year service limitation had applied to all earlier years of the dynasty, it may have reduced nominations by ten to twenty per cent.

“Assuming this limitation had applied to all earlier years of the dynasty, it may have reduced the number of nominations by some ten to twenty per cent.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The one-year service limitation for commandery heads applied to all earlier years of the dynasty.

It may state two separate claims as one.

One must doubt whether commandery territories always matched their full quota, and comparatively few men from the frontier are recorded in high civil office.

“One must in any case doubt whether such territories always matched their full quota, and comparatively few men from the frontier are recorded in high civil office.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Several commanderies must have had difficulty filling their annual quota, as reflected by an edict issued a few weeks later calling for approved candidates to present further nominations.

“Several commanderies, moreover, must have had difficulty filling their annual quota of candidates, and this is surely reflected by another edict issued a few weeks later, calling for candidates who had been approved to present further nominations of their own.”

• cites HHS 6:261Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Chen Fan's figure of two thousand for the Three Corps was probably exaggerated because he was arguing against an emergency call for candidates.

“Chen Fan was arguing against a proposal to issue an emergency call for candidates, however, and probably exaggerated to make his point.”

• cites HHS 66/56:2161Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Further judgement was presumably left to the relevant General of the Household.

“Further judgement was presumably left to the relevant General of the Household.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

The Feathered Forest corps guarded the imperial horse-parks of the northwest, and some of its members may have been officer cadets for the army.

“The Feathered Forest corps provided guards for the imperial horse-parks of the northwest, and it is possible that some were officer cadets for the army.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The requirement for Filial and Incorrupt candidates to be presented annually by each commandery or kingdom was introduced under Emperor Wu in 130 BC, with each territory nominating two men, averaging about two hundred a year.

“The requirement for Filial and Incorrupt candidates to be presented annually by each commandery or kingdom had been introduced during the reign of Emperor Wu 武 of Former Han in 130 BC: each territory was to nominate two men, for an average of some two hundred a year.”

• cites HS 6:160Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites HS 6:166-67Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The regulations of Zuo Xiong and Huang Qiong came at an exceptional time when reform-minded Confucianists tried to use the Secretariat for reform; they depended on Emperor Shun's acquiescence rather than active support, and many conservative officials and scholars opposed the changes.

“The regulations imposed by Zuo Xiong and Huang Qiong came at an exceptional time, as energetic Confucianists sought to use their influence in the Secretariat to effect reform.They relied rather [18] upon the acquiescence of their sovereign, Emperor Shun, than his energetic support, 41 and many conservative officials and scholars opposed the changes.”

• cites [41]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The claim that nominations remained free of corruption until Emperor Shun's death is doubtful because the Liang consort family's power and patronage grew from the second half of the 130s.

“It is claimed that the nomination process remained free of corruption until the death of Emperor Shun, but as the power and patronage of the Liang 梁 consort family developed from the second half of the 130s, this is doubtful.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

There appears to be no other means by which men could be trained and assessed for substantial rank in a professional army, and it is difficult to believe that all officers were promoted from the ranks.

“There appears, moreover, no other means by which men could be trained and assessed for substantial rank in a professional army, and it is difficult to believe that all officers were promoted from the ranks.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The author believes three-year service had long been the norm and that the edict of Emperor An concerned the content of the examination, not the length of probation.

“The edict says that the examination was to be given after three years, but I believe that three-year service had long been the norm; the edict was concerned with the content of the examination, and did not seek to change the length of probation.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The new criteria provided a balance of morality against technical ability, but they were more difficult to assess and thus easier to satisfy.

“The new criteria provided a balance of morality against technical ability, but they were more difficult to assess and thus easier to satisfy.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The 1700 men of the Feathered Forest were recruited from sons and grandsons of soldiers who died in battle and from respectable families of Liang province.

“while the 1700 men of the Feathered Forest were recruited from the sons and grandsons of soldiers who had died in battle and from respectable families of Liang province 涼州 in the northwest.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

It is difficult to believe that all military officers were obtained by haphazard means.

“On the other hand, it is difficult to believe that all military officers were obtained by such haphazard means.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Although some men of humble background are identified in the texts, the great majority of Filial and Incorrupt candidates came from good families, often sons or grandsons of local officers or commissioned officials.

“Though the texts identify some men of humble background, it is not surprising [19] that the great majority of Filial and Incorrupt candidates came from good families, frequently the sons or grandsons of local officers or commissioned officials.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Two examples support the suggestion that the Feathered Forest served as officer cadets: Zhao Chongguo served an apprenticeship there, and Dong Zhuo was a Gentleman of the Feathered Forest before becoming a Major.

“Despite limited evidence, two examples support this suggestion: during Former Han, the future general Zhao Chongguo 趙充國 served what was evidently an apprenticeship as a member of the Feathered Forest; and in Later Han, towards the end of the second century the future usurper Dong Zhuo 董卓 was a Gentleman of the Feathered Forest before he gained commissioned appointment as a Major (司馬 sima).”

• cites HS 69:2971Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites HHS 72/62:2319Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites SGZ 6:171Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

In China, the cadets of the Three Corps were not fighting men, and battle experience was not a prerequisite for senior office.

“In China, however, though they may have worn uniforms and carried weapons, the cadets of the Three Corps were not fighting men, and experience in battle was not a prerequisite for senior office.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Forty is only a small proportion of those graded First Class: an edict of 119 ordered each Excellency to identify five staff as First Class, and earlier Lu Gong commended several dozen men who later became ministers or commandery heads.

“Forty, however, can have been only a small proportion of those who received such a grading: an edict of 119 ordered each of the Excellencies to identify five members of their staff as First Class (HHS 5:882), and before that we are told that the Excellency over the Masses Lu Gong 魯恭 commended several dozen men who rose later to be ministers of heads of commanderies (HHS 25/15:882).”

• cites HHS 5:882Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites HHS 25/15:882Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The invitation to Fan Ying was good propaganda, as other scholars were prepared to take office, and Emperor Shun's patronage of such men reflected well on his government.

“The invitation to Fan Ying, moreover, was good propaganda, for other scholars were now prepared to take office, while Emperor Shun's ostentatious patronage of such distinguished men reflected well upon his government.67”

• cites [67]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Academicians at the Imperial University were full civil service members with rank/salary Equivalent to Six Hundred shi, and the Libationer also held Six Hundred shi.

“Academicians were full members of the civil service, and could be transferred to other offices, but their rank/salary was Equivalent to Six Hundred shi, no more than that of a senior Gentleman in the Three Corps, and the chief of them, the Libationer, was Six Hundred shi, the same as any other head of a bureau.”

• cites HHS 115/25: 3572Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Though the process was not fully consistent, there was a tendency for First Class men to receive accelerated promotion or appointment to sensitive and influential supervisory office.

“Though the process was not fully consistent, there was a tendency for First Class men to be given accelerated promotion or to be appointed to sensitive and influential supervisory office.75”

• cites [75]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The imperial-letter process was comparatively informal and applied only to junior ranks; Sun Jian's rise to high position was exceptional.

“This was a comparatively informal process, and applied only to such junior ranks; it is exceptional that Sun Jian rose to high position.71”

• cites [71]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Minister of the Household, though having eight colleagues of equal rank, was responsible for the Three Corps, and the Abundant Talent nomination matched his annual recommendation of a Gentleman with the Four Virtues.

“Similarly, though the Minister of the Household had eight colleagues of equal rank, he was responsible for the Three Corps, and the Abundant Talent nomination matched his annual recommendation of a Gentleman with the Four Virtues.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Two likely reasons for Dowager Deng's many calls were serious financial difficulties requiring economies and office sales, and the Qiang rebellion from 107 to 118; in crisis it was appropriate to seek the best assistance in civil and military affairs.

“There are two likely reasons: firstly, the government was facing serious financial difficulties, which required substantial economies and even the sale of offices -on which see Section 12 below; while from 107 to 118 it had to deal with the great rebellion of the non-Chinese Qiang 羌 in the northwest.63 In such time of crisis, it was appropriate to seek the best assistance possible, both in civil”

• cites [63]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

In the early 170s the University was purged of activists and declined again.

“in the early 170s the University was purged of its activists and fell once more into decline.”

• cites HHS 79/69A:2547Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

In principle, officials were responsible for those they nominated and could be punished if their protégés behaved badly or failed in duties.

“In principle, officials were responsible for those whom they nominated, and they could be punished when their protégés behaved badly or failed in their duties.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Because the Excellencies were the chief officials and could recruit through their own offices, it was appropriate that they had the right to recommend men for immediate commission.

“The Excellencies were the chief officials of the empire and, as discussed in Section 7 below, they could arrange recruitment through their own offices, so it was appropriate they had the right to recommend men for immediate commission.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Lu Gong held office twice, in 101-104 and 107-109, for four years total; since not all his protégés were successful, he appears to have been a most energetic patron.

“Lu Gong held the office twice, in 101-104 and 107-109, for a total of four years, and since we may assume that not all his protégés were so successful, he would appear to have been a most energetic patron.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Not all of Lu Gong's protégés were successful.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Under the Liang patronage, the number of students at the University was claimed to reach thirty thousand.

“it is claimed the number of students reached thirty thousand.”

• cites HHS 79/69A:2547Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

In 176, special examinations were provided for University students aged sixty or more, and one hundred were appointed to the Three Corps, the Suite of the Heir, and junior posts.

“an edict of 176, which provided for special examinations of University students aged sixty or more; one hundred were then appointed as Gentlemen of the Three Corps, as Members of the Suite of the Heir, and to junior positions at royal courts or commandery offices.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

No graduate of the School at the Gate of the Vast Capital is recorded as reaching substantial rank, and the experiment ended with Emperor Ling's death.

“There is no record of any graduate of the School reaching substantial rank, and the aberrant experiment ended with the death of its imperial patron ten years later.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Minister of the Household most probably nominated Incorrupt Officers from his clerical staff, and gentlemen cadets who finished probation were transferred to commissioned appointments as a matter of course.

“The Minister of the Household would most probably have nominated Incorrupt Officers from among members of his clerical staff; gentlemen cadets who came to the end of their probation were transferred to commissioned appointments as a matter of course.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

The fact that men could pay such exorbitant prices indicates great private wealth in the empire, and the government had no good method to access it through normal taxation.

“the very fact that men could pay such exorbitant prices indicates that there was great private wealth in the empire, and the government had no good method to gain access to it through normal taxation.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The phrase shouling does not always indicate a brevet magistrate; it can refer to commandery administrators and county magistrates generally.

“the phrase shouling 守令 does not always indicate a brevet magistrate: it can refer to commandery administrators (太守 taishou) and county magistrates (令長 lingzhang), being the generality of commissioned officials in the provinces.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Brevet magistrates still needed nomination or advancement by other means, and many sought to rise no further.

“It was still necessary for such men to be nominated or receive advancement by other means, and many sought to rise no further.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Emperor Ling was primarily inspired by his own greed and extravagance.

“Emperor Ling, however, was primarily inspired by his own greed and extravagance.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Official ranks and titles had been sold in Former Han, notably by Emperor Wu, but Later Han did not follow until the early second century under Dowager Deng.

“Official ranks and titles had been sold during Former Han, notably by Emperor Wu as a means to finance his great campaigns in the north, but the example was not followed by Later Han until the early second century, when the regent Dowager Deng was faced by the massive rebellion of the Qiang in the northwest and by a serious weakness in government finance.”

• cites HHS 5:213 and 7:309; Bielenstein, Bureaucracy, 141.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Han Rule of Avoidance forbade a commissioned official to hold office in his home territory or that of his wife, but brevet magistrates were exempted.

“The Han Rule of Avoidance (三互法 Sanhu fa) forbade a commissioned official to hold office in his home territory or in that of his wife, 101 but brevet magistrates were exempted by the special circumstances which allowed their appointment.”

• cites HHS 60/50B:1990-91Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

In 185, a fire in the Southern Palace led to doubling the contribution rates from new officials and requiring them also from Filial and Incorrupt and other candidates.

“In 185, though the country had been devastated by the rebellion of the Yellow Turbans in the previous year, a disastrous fire in the Southern Palace became an excuse to double the rates of contribution from new officials and to require them also from Filial and Incorrupt and other candidates.”

• cites HHS 8:339Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

A system of official recruitment developed through Former Han, and Later Han consolidated earlier experiments into a regular process.

“A system of official recruitment had been developed through Former Han, and Later Han consolidated the earlier experiments into a regular process.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The private treasury of the Western Garden remained central to the program, and a new Hall of Ten Thousand Gold Pieces was built to handle the trade.

“the private treasury of the Western Garden was still at the centre of the program, and a new Hall of Ten Thousand Gold Pieces (萬金堂 Wanjin tang) was built to handle the trade.”

• cites HHS 8:352 and 78/68:2535-36Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The recruitment system was based on clear principles: worthy and able men should be brought forward from their local community and then assessed by the central government.

“The system was set upon clear principles: worthy and able men should be brought forward from their local community, then assessed by the central government.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In 178, Emperor Ling put all official positions on the market, and by the mid-180s every appointee had to negotiate a payment at the Western Garden treasury.

“in 178 Emperor Ling went very much further, putting all official positions onto the market, and by the mid-180s every man appointed had to negotiate a payment at the ruler's private treasury in the Western Garden (西園 Xi yuan) outside Luoyang.”

• cites HHS 8:342Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

The titles of nominations such as Filial and Incorrupt or Worthy and Good were largely artificial, but a sense of morality lay behind the rhetoric.

“The titles of nominations, such as Filial and Incorrupt or Worthy and Good, were largely artificial, but there was a sense of morality behind the rhetoric, and expectation that those who exercised power should be both honourable and competent.”