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Association between concussion and mental health in former collegiate athletes
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: The existing research on the association between concussion and mental health outcomes is largely limited to former professional athletes. This cross-sectional study estimated the association between recurrent concussion and depression, impulsivity, and aggression in former collegiate athletes. METHODS: Former collegiate athletes who played between 1987-2012 at a Division I university completed an online questionnaire. The main exposure, total number of self-recalled concussions (sport-related and non-sport-related), were categorized as: zero (referent), one, two, or three or more concussions. The main outcomes were the depression module of The Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), the Short Form of the Barratt Impulsiveness scale (BIS15); and the 12-item Short Form of the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ-SF). Depression was categorized into a binomial severity classification that differentiated between no or mild depression (PHQ-9 scores <10) and moderate to severe depression (PHQ-9 scores ≥10). Impulsivity and aggression were kept as continuous outcomes. Binomial regression estimated adjusted prevalence ratios (PR). Linear regression estimated adjusted mean differences (MD). RESULTS: Of the 797 respondents with complete data (21.9% completion rate), 38.8% reported at least one concussion. Controlling for alcohol dependence and family history of depression, the prevalence of moderate to severe depression among former collegiate athletes reporting three or more concussions in total was 2.4 times that of those reporting zero concussions [95% Confidence Interval (CI): 1.0, 5.7]. Controlling for alcohol dependence, family history of anxiety, relationship status, obtaining a post-graduate degree, and playing primary college sport professionally, former collegiate athletes reporting two or more concussions in total had higher mean scores for impulsivity, compared to those reporting no concussions (2 concussions MD = 2.7; 95% CI: 1.2, 4.1; 3+ concussions MD = 1.9; 95% CI: 0.6, 3.2). Controlling for alcohol dependence, sex, and relationship status, former collegiate athletes reporting three or more concussions in total had a higher mean score for aggression, compared to those reporting no concussions (MD = 3.0; 95% CI: 1.4, 4.7). CONCLUSIONS: Our study found an association between former concussion and greater risk of severe depression and higher levels of impulsivity and aggression among former collegiate athletes. Additional prospective studies better addressing causality and ascertaining valid lifetime concussion histories and medical histories are needed.
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“Unique challenges such as the long-term impact of concussions (traumatic brain injury) on the neural system could also elevate the mental health risk for the college athlete population [2,3].”
From Mobile-Delivered Mindfulness Intervention on Anxiety Level Among College Athletes: Randomized Controlled Trial (2024) · cites this paper as [2]
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A systematic review of potential long-term effects of sport-related concussion.
Manley, G., Gardner, A. J., Schneider, K. J., Guskiewicz, K. M., Bailes, J., Cantu, R. C., Castellani, R. J., Turner, M., Jordan, B. D., Randolph, C., et al. (2017) · British Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1136/bjsports-2017-097791 · Cited by 663
Self-citationAmerican Medical Society for Sports Medicine position statement on concussion in sport
Harmon, K. G., Clugston, J. R., Dec, K. L., Hainline, B. W., Herring, S. A., Kane, S. F., Kontos, A. P., Leddy, J. J., McCrea, M., Poddar, S. K., et al. (2019) · British Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1136/bjsports-2018-100338 · Cited by 491
Concussion under-reporting and pressure from coaches, teammates, fans, and parents
Kroshus, E., Garnett, B. R., Hawrilenko, M., Baugh, C. M., & Calzo, J. P. (2015) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.04.011 · Cited by 383
Sport-Related Concussion and Mental Health Outcomes in Elite Athletes: A Systematic Review
Rice, S., Parker, A. G., Rosenbaum, S., Bailey, A. P., Mawren, D., & Purcell, R. (2017) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-017-0810-3 · Cited by 217
American Medical Society for Sports Medicine Position Statement on Concussion in Sport
Harmon, K. G., Clugston, J. R., Dec, K., Hainline, B., Herring, S. A., Kane, S., Kontos, A. P., Leddy, J. J., McCrea, M. A., Poddar, S. K., et al. (2019) · Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine · doi:10.1097/jsm.0000000000000720 · Cited by 173
Metadata
- Authors
- Kerr, Z. Y., Evenson, K. R., Rosamond, W. D., Mihalik, J. P., Guskiewicz, K. M., & Marshall, S. W.
- Affiliations
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kerr, Zachary Y
- ORCID
- Venue
- Injury Epidemiology
- Published
- 2014-11-17
- Volume
- 1
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 28-28
- ISSN
- 2197-1714 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5005582
- OpenAlex
- W2148244860
- Cited by
- 107
- References
- 42
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 5
- FWCI
- 5.05
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Injury Epidemiology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- IUScholarWorks (Indiana University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (R49CE001495)
- Injury Prevention Research Center
- Brain Injury Research Center
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Clinical Neurology › Traumatic Brain Injury Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports injuries and prevention
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Keywords
- concussion, mental health, depression, impulsivity, aggression, recurrent concussion, sports-related concussion, alcoholism, family history of depression, Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire, PHQ-9, professional athletes, risk factors for depression, risk factors for aggression
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